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Peranakan Chinese

2026-06-16T15:37:16Z

MontessoriX:

{{Short description|Chinese-descended ethnic group of Southeast Asia}}
{{About|Peranakans with Chinese ancestry|Peranakans with Indian ancestry|Chitty|Peranakan Muslims of Indian and Malay descent|Jawi Peranakan}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Peranakan Chinese
| native_name = {{lang|zh|峇峇娘惹}}<br/>''Baba Nyonya''<br/>''Baba Yaya ''
| image = [[File:Wedding portrait of a Peranakan couple.jpg|250px]]
| caption = A photograph of Peranakan wedding couple – Chung Guat Hooi, the daughter of Kapitan [[Chung Thye Phin]] and Khoo Soo Beow, the son of Khoo Heng Pan, both of Penang – from a museum in [[Penang]]
| population = 8,000,000+ (estimates)<ref name="thejakartapost">{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/05/26/chinese-indonesians-can039t-be-put-boxes.html|title=Chinese Indonesians can't be put in boxes|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=26 May 2008|access-date=10 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225114454/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/05/26/chinese-indonesians-can039t-be-put-boxes.html|archive-date=25 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
| popplace = [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]],<ref name="theperanakansourcelibrary">{{cite web|author=Peranakan Publications|url=http://peranakan.hostoi.com/IndonesiaPeranakans.htm|title=Tionghua Indonesian Chinese Peranakans|publisher=Peranakan.hostoi.com|access-date=10 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606155159/http://peranakan.hostoi.com/IndonesiaPeranakans.htm|archive-date=6 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Southern Thailand]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Forbes |first=Andrew |title=Phuket's Peranakan Community |url=https://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=features&aid=120619144240 |website=CPA Media |language=en}}</ref>
| langs = [[Malay trade and creole languages#Baba Malay|Baba Malay]] and other [[Malayic languages|varieties of Malay]], [[Penang Hokkien]], [[Singaporean Hokkien]], and other [[varieties of Chinese]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Betawi language|Betawi]], [[Southern Thai language|Southern Thai]], [[English language|English]], [[Singlish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| rels = '''Majority:'''<br>[[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] <br> '''Minority:'''<br>[[Sunni Islam]], [[Christianity]] and Other religions
| related = [[Chinese diaspora]], [[Benteng people|Benteng]], [[Chinese in the Bangka Belitung Islands|Bangka Island Peranakan Chinese]], [[Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien|Cina Kampung]], [[Sino-Natives]], [[Malaysian Chinese]], [[Thai Chinese]], [[Chinese Singaporeans]], [[Chinese Indonesians]] (Chindo), [[Sri Lankan Malays]], [[Filipino Chinese]]
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| c = 峇峇娘惹
| p = Bābā-niángrě
| poj = Bā-bā-nō͘-niâ
| j =
| mi =
| ci =
| tha = Baba Yaya / Baba Phuket
| msa = Baba Nyonya / Cina Peranakan / Cina Selat
}}
The '''Peranakan Chinese''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|n|ə|ˌ|k|ɑː|n|,_|-|k|ən}}) are an [[ethnic group]] defined by their genealogical descent from the first waves of Southern Chinese settlers to [[maritime Southeast Asia]], known as [[Nanyang (region)|Nanyang]] ({{lang-zh|c=南洋|p=nán yáng|l=Southern Ocean}}), namely the [[British Empire|British]], [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], and [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] colonial ports in the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the [[List of islands of Indonesia|Indonesian Archipelago]], as well as [[Singapore Island|Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://forvo.com/word/peranakan/#ms|title=Peranakan|access-date=15 January 2020|website=Forvo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=15 July 2019|title=Scientists in Singapore complete DNA study on Peranakans|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8eEwDk630sI|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116020142/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8eEwDk630sI|archive-date=16 January 2020|access-date=16 January 2020|website=Youtube}}</ref> The Peranakan Chinese are often simply referred to as the '''Peranakans'''.{{Efn|"The Peranakan Chinese, however, form the largest and the most important group, and for this reason many scholars use Peranakan to refer specifically to the Chinese group."}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peranakan {{!}} History, Cuisine & Language {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Peranakan |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Peranakan culture, especially in the dominant Peranakan centres of [[Malacca]], [[Singapore]], [[Penang]], [[Kelantan]], [[Terengganu]], [[Phuket]], and [[Tangerang]], is characterized by its unique hybridization of ancient Chinese culture with the local cultures of the [[Nusantara (archipelago)|Nusantara]] region, the result of a centuries-long history of [[transculturation]] and [[interracial marriage]].

Immigrants from the southern provinces of China arrived in significant numbers in the region between the 14th and 17th centuries, taking abode in the Malay Peninsula (where their descendants in Malacca, Singapore and Penang are referred to as '''Baba–Nyonya'''); the [[Southern Thailand]] (where their descendants are referred to as '''Baba-Yaya'''), primarily in [[Phuket]], [[Trang province|Trang]], [[Phang Nga]], [[Takua Pa]], and [[Ranong]];<ref name="D'Oliveiro">{{Cite web|last=D'Oliveiro|first=Michael|date=31 March 2007|title=The Peranakan Trail|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/3/31/lifefocus/17061503&sec=lifefocus|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905005849/http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=%2F2007%2F3%2F31%2Flifefocus%2F17061503&sec=lifefocus|archive-date=5 September 2012|website=The Star Online|language=en}}</ref><ref name="West, Barbara A. 2009 657">{{cite book|author=West, Barbara A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&q=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Asia+and+Oceania|title=Encyclopedia Of The Peoples Of Asia And Oceania|publisher=Facts On File|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8160-7109-8|page=657}}</ref> [[Terengganu]] (where their descendants are referred to as '''Cheng Mua Lang''')<ref name="Keunikan peranakan Cina Terengganu">{{Cite web|first=Farah |last=Shazwani Ali |date=22 October 2019|title=Keunikan peranakan Cina Terengganu|url=https://www.sinarharian.com.my/article/53372/khas/kitalahmalaysia/keunikan-peranakan-cina-terengganu|website=Sinar Harian|language=ms}}</ref> and [[North Borneo]] from the 18th century (where their descendants in [[Sabah]] are also referred to as '''[[Sino-Native]]s'''). Intermarriage between these Chinese settlers and their [[Malay people|Malay]], [[Thai people|Thai]], [[Javanese people|Javanese]], or other predecessors in the region contributed to the emergence of a distinctive hybrid culture and ostensible [[phenotype|phenotypic]] differences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Peranakan|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Peranakan|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002043952/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Peranakan|archive-date=2 October 2019|access-date=14 January 2020|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref><ref name="Mixed">{{Cite book|last=Pue|first=Giok Hun|title=Mixed Race in Asia: Past, Present and Future|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|editor-last=Rocha|editor-first=Zarine L.|location=London|pages=147–161|chapter=‘Our Chinese’: the mixedness of Peranakan Chinese identities in Kelantan, Malaysia}}</ref> Through colonisation of the region, the impact and presence of the Peranakan Chinese spread beyond Nusantara.<ref name=Ceylon>{{Cite book |last=Ricci |first=Ronit|title=Banishment and Belonging Exile and Diaspora in Sarandib, Lanka and Ceylon |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=1–22}}</ref> In [[Sri Lanka]], the Peranakan Chinese went on to contribute to the development of the [[Sri Lankan Malays|Sri Lankan Malay identity]] that emerged in the nation during [[Dutch Ceylon|Dutch rule]].<ref name=Ceylon/>

The Peranakans are considered a [[multiracial people|multiracial]] community, with the caveat that individual family histories vary widely and likewise self-identification with multiracialism as opposed to Chineseness varies widely.<ref name="Mixed" /><ref name="Chia">{{Cite web|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/peranakan-chinese-malay-identity-singapore-bicentennial-10745232|title=I am Peranakan, not Chinese|date=7 October 2018|access-date=14 January 2020|website=Channel News Asia|last=Chia|first=Josephine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126060621/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/peranakan-chinese-malay-identity-singapore-bicentennial-10745232|archive-date=26 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Malay/Indonesian phrase "orang Cina bukan Cina" ("a not-Chinese Chinese person")<ref>{{Cite web|title=Peranakans|url=http://babanyonyamuseum.com/the-peranakans/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112062658/http://babanyonyamuseum.com/the-peranakans/|archive-date=12 January 2020|access-date=16 January 2020|website=Baba & Nyonya Heritage Museum, Malacca}}</ref> encapsulates the complex relationship between Peranakan identity and Chinese identity. The particularities of genealogy and the unique syncretic culture are the main features that distinguish the Peranakan from descendants of later waves of Chinese immigrants to the region.

== Etymology ==
The word ''Peranakan'' is a grammatical [[inflection]] of the [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] word ''anak'', meaning ''child'' or ''offspring''. With the addition of the prefix ''per-'' and the suffix ''-an'' to the root ''anak'', the modified word ''peranakan'' has a variety of meanings. Among other things, it can mean ''womb'', or it can be used as a designator of genealogical descent, connoting ancestry or lineage, including great-grandparents or more-distant ancestors. On its own, when used in common parlance, the word "peranakan" does not denote a specific ethnicity of descent unless followed by a subsequent qualifying noun. For example ''Peranakan Tionghoa/Cina'' may simply mean "Chinese descendants"; likewise ''Jawi Peranakan'' can mean "Arab descendants", or ''Peranakan Belanda'' "Dutch descendants".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kridalaksana |first=Harimurti |title=Kamus Sinonim Bahasa Indonesia |year=1974 |publisher=Nusa Indah |language=id |author-link=Harimurti Kridalaksana}}</ref><ref name="Kamus"/>

However, in a semantic shift, the word ''peranakan'' has come to be used as a "metaphorical" adjective that has the meaning of "locally born but non-indigenous".<ref name=Mixed/> In Indonesian, it can denote "hybrid" or "crossbred".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/indonesian-english/peranakan|title=Peranakan|access-date=15 January 2019|website=Cambridge Dictionary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115052016/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/indonesian-english/peranakan|archive-date=15 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Thus the term "Peranakan Cina" or "Peranakan Tionghoa" can have the literal or archaic meaning of "Chinese womb" or "Chinese descendants" or "Chinese ancestry" or "descended from the Chinese"—but more latterly has come to mean "locally born but non-indigenous Chinese" or even "[[half-caste]] Chinese". The semantic shift is presumed to have arisen from the thorough hybridization or [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] of the earliest Chinese or other non-indigenous settlers in the Malay Archipelago such that their ethnic heritage needed to be specified whenever referring to them, either to avoid confusion or to emphasise difference. The designator ''peranakan''—in its original sense simply connoting "descendant of X ethnicity", or "the wombs of X"—emerged as the name for entire ethnic groups that were "locally born but non-indigenous" or perceived to be "hybrid" and "crossbred", and, in time, the latter meaning has come to predominate. It should also be noted that the broadness of the semantic range of ''peranakan'' means that it can have significantly different connotations in different parts of the Nusantara region and across different dialects or variants of the Malay and Indonesian languages.

The word ''Peranakan,'' which can have very broad and labile meanings in [[Malay language|Malay]] and Indonesian and, when used in common parlance, is simply an indicator of heritage or descent, may also be used to refer to other ethnic groups in the same region. Owing to the broad meaning of the term 'peranakan', the term is also encountered when referring to other communities in the region with similar histories of immigration and assimilation. For example, the [[Chitty]] may accurately refer to themselves as 'Indian Hindu Peranakans', meaning "of Indian Hindu descent" or "locally born but non-indigenous Indian Hindu". Likewise the [[Kristang people|Kristang]] may accurately refer to themselves as 'Eurasian Peranakans'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peranakanmuseum.org.sg/themuseum/abtperanakans.html |title=Peranakan Museum |publisher=Peranakan Museum |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209102126/http://www.peranakanmuseum.org.sg/themuseum/abtperanakans.html |archive-date=9 February 2014 }}</ref> The name of the [[Jawi Peranakan|Jawi Pekan]] people is derived from 'Peranakan', [[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]] being the Javanised [[Arabic script]], and ''Pekan'' being a colloquial contraction of ''Peranakan''.<ref name="Kamus">{{Cite book |last=Nasution |first=Sadaoh |title=Kamus Umum Lengkap: Inggris-Indonesia Indonesia-Inggris |year=1989 |publisher=University of California |language=id}}</ref>

== Chinese Peranakan ==
[[File:Njonja Majoor-titulair Be Biauw Tjoan (née Tan Ndjiang Nio).png|thumb|[[Tan Ndjiang Nio|Njonja Majoor-titulair Be Biauw Tjoan]] (née Tan Ndjiang Nio), a prominent member of the ''[[Cabang Atas]]'' aristocracy]]
The prominence of Peranakan Chinese culture, however, has led to the common elision whereby 'Peranakan' may simply be taken to refer to the Peranakan Chinese, i.e. the culturally unique descendants of the earliest Chinese settlers in the Malay Archipelago, as opposed to the other smaller groups that also justifiably call themselves 'peranakan'. For some Peranakans of Chinese descent, calling oneself "Peranakan" without the qualifier "Chinese" can be a way of asserting an ethnic identity distinct from and independent of Chineseness (though such a use of "Peranakan" as a single-word [[ethnonym]] may clash with the desire of other groups of non-Chinese descent to equally call themselves "Peranakan").<ref name="Chia"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12222280|title=Peranakans at a loss on how many of them there are in NZ|date=15 April 2019|access-date=15 January 2020|website=New Zealand Herald|last=Tan|first=Lincoln|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114185414/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12222280|archive-date=14 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Later waves of immigrants to South East Asia are generally referred to using larger umbrella terms such as [[Malaysian Chinese]], [[Chinese Singaporeans|Chinese Singaporean]], [[Chinese Indonesian|Chinese Indonesian or Tionghoa]], or [[Thai Chinese]].

== Straits Chinese ==
One of the sub-groups of Chinese-Peranakan, '''Straits Chinese''' or '''Straits-born Chinese''' were defined as those born or living in the [[Straits Settlements]]: a British colony consisting of [[Malacca]], [[Penang]], and [[Singapore]] which was established in 1826.<ref name="google"/> Straits Chinese were not considered Baba Nyonya unless they displayed certain Sino-Malay syncretic attributes, in terms of attire worn, food, spoken language, choice of education, preferred career choices, choice of religion and loyalties.<ref name="google">{{cite book |author=Ooi |first=Keat Gin |author-link=Keat Gin Ooi |url= |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}}</ref>

However, given that 'Straits Chinese' is a geographical designator specific to the former British colonies in the region, whereas 'Peranakan Chinese' is a broader genealogical designator covering all parts of the Nusantara region where Chinese people settled (including areas colonized by the Dutch, who would not have used the word 'Straits'), the two terms cannot be said to fully overlap or be interchangeable. Someone who is said to be 'Straits Chinese' in British colonial documents might, for example, be non-Peranakan, i.e. a person who arrived in the Nusantara region during much later periods of Chinese migration.

Conversely, the other Dutch, Malay and Siamese-speaking Peranakan Chinese in Dutch East Indies, Siam and Malaya would be unlikely to refer to themselves using the English term 'Straits Chinese'.

== Baba-Nyonya ==
The Peranakan Chinese commonly refer to themselves as Baba-Nyonya. The term ''[[Baba (honorific)|Baba]]'' is an honorific for Straits Chinese men. It originated as a Hindi (originally Persian) loan-word borrowed by [[Malay language|Malay]] speakers as a term of affection for one's grandparents, and became part of the common vernacular. In [[Penang Hokkien]], it is pronounced ''bā-bā'' (in [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]),<ref name="tan2016">{{cite book |last1=Tan |first1=Siew Imm |title=Penang Hokkien-English dictionary: with an English-Penang Hokkien glossary |year=2016 |publisher=Sunway Education Group |isbn=978-967-13697-1-5}}</ref> and sometimes written with the [[Chinese character classification#Rebus (phonetic loan) characters|phonetic loan characters]] 峇峇. Female Straits-Chinese descendants were either called or styled themselves ''Nyonyas''. ''Nyonya'' (also spelled ''nyonyah'' or ''nonya'') is a Malay and [[Indonesia language|Indonesian]] honorific used to refer to a foreign married lady. It is a loan word, borrowed from the old Portuguese word for lady ''donha'' (compare, for instance, [[Macanese language|Macanese creole]] ''nhonha'' spoken on Macau, which was a Portuguese colony for 464 years). Because Malays at that time had a tendency to address all foreign women (and perhaps those who appeared foreign) as ''nyonya'', they used that term for Straits-Chinese women as well. It gradually became more exclusively associated with them.<ref>Joo Ee Khoo, ''The Straits Chinese: a cultural history'', Pepin Press: 1996 {{ISBN|90-5496-008-6}}, 288 pages</ref><ref>Soeseno Kartomihardjo, ''Ethnography of Communicative Codes in East Java'' Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1981, {{ISBN|0-85883-255-0}}, page 96</ref> In [[Penang Hokkien]], it is pronounced ''nō͘-niâ'' (in Pe̍h-ōe-jī),<ref name="tan2016"/> and sometimes written with the phonetic loan characters 娘惹.

==Ancestry==
A 2021 genetic study Singapore's Peranakan Chinese have Malay ancestry, with an average of 5–10%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Degang |last2=Li |first2=Peter Yiqing |last3=Pan |first3=Bangfen |last4=Tiang |first4=Zenia |last5=Dou |first5=Jinzhuang |last6=Williantarra |first6=Ivanna |last7=Pribowo |first7=Amadeus Yeremia |last8=Nurdiansyah |first8=Rizky |last9=SG Peranakan Project |last10=Foo |first10=Roger S. Y. |last11=Wang |first11=Chaolong |date=27 September 2021 |title=Genetic Admixture in the Culturally Unique Peranakan Chinese Population in Southeast Asia |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=4463–4474 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab187 |issn=1537-1719 |pmc=8476152 |pmid=34152401}}</ref>

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De echtgenotes van twee werknemers van de Singkep Tin Maatschappij Riouw TMnr 10007287.jpg|thumb|Two Peranakan women at a tin factory in [[Singkep|Pulau Singkep]], [[Riau Islands]].]]

Many Peranakans identify as Holoh ([[Hokkien]]) despite being of numerous origins, such as the descendants of adopted local Malaysian aborigines. A sizeable number are of [[Teochew people|Teochew]] or [[Hakka people|Hakka]] descent, including a small minority of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]].

Baba Nyonya are a subgroup within Chinese communities. Peranakan families occasionally arranged brides from China for their sons or arranged marriages for their daughters with newly arrived Chinese immigrants.

There are parallels between the Peranakan Chinese and the [[Cambodian Hokkien]], who are descendants of Hoklo Chinese. Likewise the ''[[Malay-based creole languages#Baba Malay|Pashu]]'' of [[Myanmar]], a [[Burmese language|Burmese word]] for the '''Peranakan''' or Straits Chinese who have settled in Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Talks: Peranakan Museum: Preliminary Survey of the Peranakan in Myanmar 23 Oct 2009 |url=http://www.acm.org.sg/exhibitions/564.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310195406/http://www.acm.org.sg/exhibitions/564.html |archive-date=10 March 2014 |access-date=10 March 2014 |website=Asian Civilisations Museum |language=en }}</ref>

They maintained their culture partially despite their native language gradually disappearing a few generations after settlement.<ref name="Willmott1967">{{cite book|first=William E.|last=Willmott|title=The Chinese in Cambodia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWgKAQAAIAAJ|year=1967|publisher=Publications Centre, University of British Columbia|isbn=9780774800877 |access-date=16 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424211914/https://books.google.com/books?id=MWgKAQAAIAAJ|archive-date=24 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Popular myths by the Malays of the Peranakan Chinese in Malacca, Singapore, and Penang sometimes state exclusive descent from the royal retinue of an allegedly princess named Hang Li Po<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lgsquirrel.wordpress.com/2014/05/17/royal-blood/|title=Royal Blood|date=17 May 2014|access-date=14 January 2020|website=Realm of the Lone Grey Squirrel|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029100422/https://lgsquirrel.wordpress.com/2014/05/17/royal-blood/|archive-date=29 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nyonyakitchen.my/|title=Siew Tin's Nyonya Kitchen|access-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106015319/http://www.nyonyakitchen.my/|archive-date=6 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>—alleged by the [[Malay Annals]] as having made a marriage of alliance with the Sultan of Malacca in the fifteenth century<ref>{{Cite book|title=Malay Annals|last=Anonymous|publisher=Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown|year=1821|location=London|pages=179–80|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Malay_Annals/Chapter_15|translator-last=Leyden|translator-first=John|access-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114031132/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Malay_Annals/Chapter_15|archive-date=14 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> however modern historians disproved the princess marriage as a false myth by the Malay Annals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2012/01/16/prof-khoo-no-record-of-the-existance-of-princess-hang-li-po-its-a-myth|title=Prof Khoo: No record of the {{sic|nolink=y|exis|tance}} of Princess Hang Li Po; its a myth|date=16 January 2012|access-date=14 January 2020|website=The Star (Malaysia)|last=Kulasagaran|first=Priya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823014655/http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2012/01/16/prof-khoo-no-record-of-the-existance-of-princess-hang-li-po-its-a-myth/|archive-date=23 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/2017/04/228020/search-hang-li-po|title=The search for Hang Li Po|date=7 April 2017|access-date=14 January 2020|website=New Straits Times|last=Wain|first=Alexander|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511010633/http://www.nst.com.my/news/2017/04/228020/search-hang-li-po|archive-date=11 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Language==
[[File:Tjhit Liap Seng cover.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.70|''[[Tjhit Liap Seng]]'' (1886) by [[Lie Kim Hok]] was considered the first Chinese Malay novel.]]

The language of the Peranakans, [[Malay-based creole languages#Baba Malay|Baba Malay]] (''Bahasa Melayu Baba'') or Peranakan Malay, is a [[creole language]] related to the [[Malay language]] (''Bahasa Melayu''), which contains many [[Hokkien]] words. It is a dying language, and its contemporary use is mainly limited to members of the older generation. It is common for the Peranakan of the older generation (particularly among women) to ''[[latah]]'' in Peranakan Malay when experiencing unanticipated shock.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frank Bures|author-link=Frank Bures|title=The Geography of Madness: Penis Thieves, Voodoo Death, and the Search for the Meaning of the World's Strangest Syndromes|year=2016|publisher=Melville House|isbn=978-16-121-9373-1|page=69}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kok Seong Teo|title=A Sociolinguistic Description of the Peranakan Chinese of Kelantan, Malaysia, Volume 1|year=1993|publisher=University of California|oclc=1038840747|page=83}}</ref>

The Peranakan Malay spoken by the Malaccan Peranakans community is strongly based on the [[Malay language]] as most of them can only speak little to none of the language of their Chinese forebears.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zhiming Bao|title=The Making of Vernacular Singapore English: System, Transfer, and Filter|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-02208-9}}</ref> Whereas in the east coast of [[Peninsula Malaysia]], the Peranakans are known to not only speak a Hokkien version of their own but also [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Kelantanese Malay]] in [[Kelantan]] and [[Terengganu Malay]] in [[Terengganu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Chee-Beng |year=2010 |title=Peranakan Chinese in Northeast Kelantan with special reference to Chinese Religion |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1(242) |pages=26–52 |asin=B004124IMY |jstor=41492910}}</ref><ref name="STperanakanganu" /> Unlike the rest of the Peranakans in Malaysia, Penang Peranakans are much heavily influenced by a dialect of Hokkien known locally as [[Penang Hokkien]].

In [[Indonesia]], the Peranakan language is mainly based on Indonesian and [[Javanese language|Javanese]], which is mixed with elements of different [[Chinese varieties]], mostly Hokkien. Speakers of the Peranakan language can be found scattered along the northern coastline area throughout [[West Java]], [[Central Java]] and [[East Java]], and also in [[Special Region of Yogyakarta]], Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pea |title=Indonesian, Peranakan |publisher=ethnologue |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921140214/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pea |archive-date=21 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Young Peranakans can still speak this creole language, although its use is limited to informal occasions.

==History==
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Straatgezicht bij een Chinese tempel in Soerabaja TMnr 10015151.jpg|thumb|Hok An Kiong Chinese Temple, Jalan Coklat, [[Surabaya]] c. 1900 – 1920. Large Chinese communities were already present in [[Java]] when the Dutch arrived just before the 1600s. Many Chinese had native concubines until a large group of mestizos arose, who spoke Malay or Javanese.]]

The first Chinese immigrants to settle in the Malay Archipelago arrived from Guangdong and Fujian provinces in the 10th century AD. They were joined by much larger numbers of the Chinese in the 15th through 17th centuries, following on the heels of the Ming emperor's reopening of Chinese-Malay trade relations in the 15th century.<ref name="West, Barbara A. 2009 657"/>

In the 15th century, some small city-states of the Malay Peninsula often paid tribute to various kingdoms such as those of China and [[Thailand|Siam]]. Close relations with China were established in the early 15th century during the reign of [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] when Admiral [[Zheng He]] (''Cheng Ho''), a Muslim Chinese, visited Malacca and Java during his expedition (1405–1433). According to a legend in 1459, the Emperor of China sent a princess, [[Hang Li Po]], to the Sultan of Malacca as a token of appreciation for his tribute. The nobles (500 sons of ministers) and servants who accompanied the princess initially settled in [[Bukit Cina]] and eventually grew into a class of [[Straits-born]] Chinese known as the Peranakans.

Chinese men in [[Melaka]] fathered children with [[Javanese people|Javanese]], [[Batak people|Batak]] and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] slave women. Their descendants moved to Penang and Singapore during the period of British rule.<ref>Rodgers (1996), p. 57 {{Google books|YFIGVqZ9ZKsC|Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese|page=57}}</ref> Chinese men in colonial southeast Asia also obtained slave wives from [[Nias]]. Chinese men in Singapore and Penang were supplied with slave wives of [[Bugis]], [[Batak]], and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] origin.<ref name="Klein1993">{{cite book|author=[[Martin A. Klein]]|title=Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage, and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/breakingchainssl00klei|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-13754-0}}</ref>{{rp|71}} The British colonial government tolerated the importation of slave wives since they improved the standard of living for the slaves and provided contentment to the male population.<ref name="Klein1993"/>{{rp|72}} The usage of slave women or house maids as wives by the Chinese was widespread.<ref name="Hussin2007">{{cite book|author=Nordin Hussin|title=Trade and Society in the Straits of Melaka: Dutch Melaka and English Penang, 1780–1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRrd8EBOqxwC|year=2007|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-354-1|access-date=16 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617142521/https://books.google.com/books?id=TRrd8EBOqxwC|archive-date=17 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<blockquote>It cannot be denied, however, that the existence of slavery in this quarter, in former years, was of immense advantage in procuring a female population for [[Penang Island|Pinang]]. From [[Asahan Regency|Assaban]] alone, there used to be sometimes 300 slaves, principally females, exported to Malacca and Pinang in a year. The women get comfortably settled as the wives of opulent Chinese merchants, and live in the greatest comfort. Their families attach these men to the soil; and many never think of returning to their native country. The female population of Pinang is still far from being upon a par with the male; and the abolition therefore of slavery, has been a vast sacrifice to philanthropy and humanity. As the condition of the slaves who were brought to the British settlements, was materially improved, and as they contributed so much to the happiness of the male population, and the general prosperity of the settlement, I am disposed to think (although I detest the principles of slavery as much as any man), that the continuance of the system here could not, under the benevolent regulations which were in force to prevent abuse, have been productive of much evil. The sort of slavery indeed which existed in the British settlements in this quarter, had nothing but the name against it; for the condition of the slaves who were brought from the adjoining countries, was always ameliorated by the change; they were well fed and clothed; the women became wives of respectable Chinese; and the men who were in the least industrious, easily emancipated themselves, and many became wealthy. Severity by masters was punished; and, in short, I do not know any race of people who were, and had every reason to be, so happy and contented as the slaves formerly, and debtors as they are now called, who came from the east coast of Sumatra and other places.<ref>Anderson (1826) {{Google books|flvqWUGVD58C|Mission to the east coast of Sumatra: in M.DCCC.XXIII, under the direction of the government of Prince of Wales island: including historical and descriptive sketches of the country, an account of the commerce, population, and customs of the inhabitants, and a visit to the Batta cannibal states in the interior|page=298}}</ref><ref>Anderson {{Google books|flvqWUGVD58C|Mission to the east coast of Sumatra: in M.DCCC.XXIII|page=299}}</ref>
John Anderson – Agent to the Government of Prince of Wales Island</blockquote>

People of [[Thai Chinese|Chinese]] ancestry in [[Phuket]], [[Thailand]] make up a significant population, many of whom having descended from tin miners who migrated to the island during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|year=2000|page=108|author=Annabelle Gambe|isbn=978-3-8258-4386-1}}</ref> The Peranakans there are known as "''Phuket Babas''" in the local tongue, constitute a fair share of members Chinese community, particularly among those who have family ties with the Peranakans of Penang and Malacca.<ref name="D'Oliveiro" />

Chinese who married local Javanese women and converted to Islam created a distinct Chinese Muslim Peranakan community in Java.<ref name="Ooi2004">{{cite book|author=Keat Gin Ooi|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1057|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|pages=1057–}}</ref> Chinese rarely had to convert to Islam to marry Javanese [[abangan]] women but a significant number of their offspring did, and Batavian Muslims absorbed the Chinese Muslim community which was descended from converts.<ref name="ReidAlilunas-Rodgers1996">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Reid|author2=Kristine Alilunas-Rodgers|title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFIGVqZ9ZKsC&pg=PA75|year=1996|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2446-4|pages=75–}}</ref> Adoption of Islam back then was a marker of peranakan status which it no longer means. The Semaran Adipati and the Jayaningrat families were of Chinese origin.<ref name="Remmelink1990">{{cite book|author=Willem G. J. Remmelink|title=Emperor Pakubuwana II, Priyayi & Company and the Chinese War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6wuAQAAIAAJ&q=The+general+term+for+Javanized+Chinese+was+peranakan,+which+nowadays+simply+means+locally+born,+but+at+the+time+also|year=1990|publisher=W.G.J. Remmelink|page=136}}</ref><ref name="Remmelink1994">{{Cite book |last=Willem G. J. |first=Remmelink |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZVuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+general+term+for+Javanized+Chinese+was+peranakan,+which+nowadays+simply+means+locally+born,+but+at+the+time+also |title=The Chinese War and the Collapse of The Javanese State, 1725–1743 |year=1994 |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=978-90-6718-067-2 |page=136 |language=en}}</ref>

Peranakans were held in high regard by Malays. Some Malays in the past may have taken the word "Baba", referring to Chinese males, and put it into their name, when this used to be the case.<ref>[http://www.sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays.pdf Names and Surnames among the Malays] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105042/http://www.sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays.pdf |date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://freedownload.is/pdf/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays-1495749.html |title=Names and Surnames among the Malays PDF - Ebookily.net |publisher=Freedownload.is |date=13 October 2011 |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721063039/http://freedownload.is/pdf/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays-1495749.html |archive-date=21 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=14 December 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VmMVAAAACAAJ|title=Cultural Melaka|author=Donna Jeremiah|year=2002|publisher=IKSEP|isbn=978-983-2600-01-5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627165339/http://books.google.com/books?id=VmMVAAAACAAJ|archive-date=27 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> This is not followed by the younger generation, and the current [[Chinese Malaysians]] do not have the same status or respect as Peranakans used to have.

In Penang, Thai women replaced Nias slave women and [[Batak]] slave women as wives of Chinese men after the 1830s when slavery was abolished.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nasution |first1=Khoo Salma |year=2009 |title=Hokkien Chinese on the Phuket Mining From The Penang Connection and the Emergence Phuket Baba Community |url=https://www.academia.edu/3488733 |journal=JMBRAS |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=82}}</ref>

Many Peranakan in [[Java]], [[Indonesia]] are descendants of non-Muslim Chinese men who married abangan Javanese Muslim women. Most of the Chinese men did not convert to Islam since their Javanese wives did not ask them to, but a minority of Javanese women asked them to convert so a Chinese Muslim community made out of converts appeared among the Javanese. In the late half of the 19th century, Javanese Muslims became more adherent to Islamic rules due to going on hajj and more Arabs arriving in Java, ordering [[circumcision]] for converts. The Batavian Muslims in the 19th century completely absorbed the converted Chinese Muslims who originally had their own separate kapitan and community in the late 18th century. The remaining commoner non-Muslim Chinese Peranakans descended from Chinese men and Javanese Muslim women generally stopped marrying Javanese and the elite Peranakans stopped marrying Javanese completely and instead started only marrying fellow Chinese Peranakans in the 19th century, as they realized they might get absorbed by the Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last=Skinner |first=G. William |title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese |date=2001 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0824824466 |editor-last=Reid |editor-first=Anthony |edition=illustrated, reprint |series=Diaspora studies / Southeast Asian History |location= |page=75 |chapter=3 Creolized Chinese Societies in Southeast Asia |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFIGVqZ9ZKsC&dq=%22consented+to+nominal+conversion+in+old+age+to+please+their+wives%22&pg=PA75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wijaya |first=Yahya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShYQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22In+this+period+,+conversion+to+Islam+for+the+ethnic+Chinese+was+likely+a+part+of+their+attempt+to+assimilate+themselves+into+Javanese+society+,+since+the+converted+ethnic+Chinese+were+usually+those+who+had+been+married+to+local+people%22 |title=Business, Family, and Religion: Public Theology in the Context of the Chinese-Indonesian Business Community |date=2002 |publisher=P. Lang |isbn=390676849X |location= |page=71 |author-link=}}</ref> DNA tests done on Chinese Peranakan in [[Singapore]] showed that those Peranakan who are mixed with Malays are mostly of paternal Han Chinese descent and of maternal Malay descent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Degang |last2=Li |first2=Peter Yiqing |last3=Pan |first3=Bangfen |last4=Tiang |first4=Zenia |last5=Dou |first5=Jinzhuang |last6=Williantarra |first6=Ivanna |last7=Pribowo |first7=Amadeus Yeremia |last8=Nurdiansyah |first8=Rizky |last9=Foo |first9=Roger S Y |last10=Wang |first10=Chaolong |date=October 2021 |title=Genetic Admixture in the Culturally Unique Peranakan Chinese Population in Southeast Asia |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/38/10/4463/6307269 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=4463–4474 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab187 |pmid=34152401 |pmc=8476152 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wu | first1=Degang | last2=Li | first2=Peter Yiqing | last3=Pan | first3=Bangfen | last4=Tiang | first4=Zenia | last5=Dou | first5=Jinzhuang | last6=Williantarra | first6=Ivanna | last7=Pribowo | first7=Amadeus Yeremia | last8=Nurdiansyah | first8=Rizky | last9=Foo | first9=Roger S Y | last10=Wang | first10=Chaolong | title=Genetic Admixture in the Culturally Unique Peranakan Chinese Population in Southeast Asia | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=38 | issue=10 | date=2021-06-21 | issn=1537-1719 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msab187 | pages=4463–4474 |pmid=34152401| pmc=8476152 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=August 6, 2021 |title=Genomic analysis of Peranakan Chinese reveals insight into ancestry |work=Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore |location= |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-08-genomic-analysis-peranakan-chinese-reveals.html |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Chee |first=Colin |date=30 June 2021 |title=THE SINGAPORE PERANAKAN GENOME PROJECT |url=https://www.peranakan.org.sg/2021/07/the-singapore-peranakan-genome-project/ |access-date= |website=The Peranakan Association Singapore |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.cell.2019.09.019 | title=Large-Scale Whole-Genome Sequencing of Three Diverse Asian Populations in Singapore | year=2019 | last1=Wu | first1=Degang | last2=Dou | first2=Jinzhuang | last3=Chai | first3=Xiaoran | last4=Bellis | first4=Claire | last5=Wilm | first5=Andreas | last6=Shih | first6=Chih Chuan | last7=Soon | first7=Wendy Wei Jia | last8=Bertin | first8=Nicolas | last9=Lin | first9=Clarabelle Bitong | last10=Khor | first10=Chiea Chuen | last11=Degiorgio | first11=Michael | last12=Cheng | first12=Shanshan | last13=Bao | first13=Li | last14=Karnani | first14=Neerja | last15=Hwang | first15=William Ying Khee | last16=Davila | first16=Sonia | last17=Tan | first17=Patrick | last18=Shabbir | first18=Asim | last19=Moh | first19=Angela | last20=Tan | first20=Eng-King | last21=Foo | first21=Jia Nee | last22=Goh | first22=Liuh Ling | last23=Leong | first23=Khai Pang | last24=Foo | first24=Roger S.Y. | last25=Lam | first25=Carolyn Su Ping | last26=Richards | first26=Arthur Mark | last27=Cheng | first27=Ching-Yu | last28=Aung | first28=Tin | last29=Wong | first29=Tien Yin | last30=Ng | first30=Huck Hui | journal=Cell | volume=179 | issue=3 | pages=736–749.e15 | pmid=31626772 | display-authors=1 | doi-access=free | hdl=10356/150428 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Peranakans in Malaysia and Singapore formed when non-Muslim Chinese men were able to marry Malay Muslim women a long time ago without converting to Islam. This is no longer the case in modern times where anyone who marries Malay women is required to convert to Islam.<ref name="Chua 2013">{{cite book |last=Chua |first=Beng Huat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxpqDwAAQBAJ&dq=non-muslim+men+malay+marry&pg=PT165 |title=Life Is Not Complete Without Shopping |date=2013 |publisher=Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. |isbn=978-9971697273 |location= |page= |author-link=}}</ref>

Peranakan, Straits Chinese, Baba Nyonya are all names for the descendants of Han Chinese men and their Javanese, Sumatran and Malay wives. Han Chinese men did not allow their women to leave China, so they married local Muslim Javanese and other Southeast Asian women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kerlogue |first=Fiona G. Kerlogue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&q=chinese+javanese+women |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1576077705 |editor-last=Ooi |editor-first=Keat Gin |edition=illustrated |location= |pages=198, 945, 1057 |quote=}}</ref> Dayak women were married by Han Chinese men who settled in Borneo as noted in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Andaya |first=Barbara Watson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5cBEAAAQBAJ&dq=first+waves+of+Chinese+males+reaching+Borneo+had+readily+taken+Dayak+women+as+sexual+partners&pg=PA146 |title=The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia |date=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0824864727 |edition=illustrated |series=UPCC book collections on Project MUSE |location= |page=146 |quote=Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia Barbara Watson Andaya ... composed his Hai-lu (A record of the seas), he noted that the first waves of Chinese males reaching Borneo had readily taken Dayak women as sexual partners.}}</ref>

The Chinese are perhaps the most important people in Borneo. They have been traders and settlers on the coast from beyond historic times, and, as has just been stated, have for an equally long period mixed with the natives; so that some Dyaks—the Dusuns especially might almost be classed with them. They are not only traders who amass wealth merely to return with it to their own empire, but miners, agriculturists, and producers, without whom it would be difficult to develop the country. The Philippines, Singapore, and Borneo receive, perhaps, a larger number of these immigrants than any other countries. In Borneo they are scattered over the whole seaboard, carrying on a good deal of the river trade, and supplanting in many ways the less energetic Malay. But they are chiefly to be found in West Borneo, especially in the mining districts, as in Sambas and Montrado (Menteradu) in Dutch territory. Numbers are settled around Bau and Bidi, in Sarawak, and in the capital, Kuching. In North Borneo an irruption of some thousands occurred on the opening up of the country, and great numbers are employed on the tobacco plantations lately established. In Labuan, and in Pengaron in South Borneo, the coal mines were worked by Chinese, and they still act as sago-washers in the former island. Bound together by societies with stringent laws, their system of co-operation enables them to prosper where others would fail. In West Borneo they thus became so powerful as to defy the Dutch Government, who had great difficulty in subduing them.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q9ZLAAAAYAAJ&dq=pigafetta+malay+lingua+franca+philippines&pg=PA238 |title=Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes |date=1894 |publisher=E. Stanford |editor-last=Guillemard |editor-first=Francis Henry Hill |volume=2 of Stanford's compendium of geography and travel. New issue. [Australasia, vol. II] |location= |page=238 |quote=It is not necessary, however, to conclude that the Malay power was established by the single invasion of a conquering ... widely spoken Philippine tongue, Bisayan, but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that 1 region .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=John Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kq0tAAAAYAAJ&dq=pigafetta+malay+lingua+franca+philippines&pg=PA238 |title=Australasia: Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagos, by Guillemard |last2=Guillemard |first2=Francis Henry Hill |date=1908 |publisher=E. Stanford |edition=2 |series=Stanford's compendium of geography and travel |volume=2 of Australasia, Francis Henry Hill Guillemard |page=238 |quote=It is not necessary, however, to conclude that the Malay power was established by the single invasion of a ... to another widely spoken Philippine tongue, Bisayan, but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that region . |last1=Gregory}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wallace |first=Alfred Russel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmBPAQAAMAAJ&dq=pigafetta+malay+lingua+franca+philippines&pg=PA238 |title=Australasia: Malaysia and the Pacific archipelagoes, by F.H.H. Guillemard |date=1894 |publisher=E. Stanford |editor-last=Guillemard |editor-first=Francis Henry Hill |series=Stanford's compendium of geography and travel: New issue |volume=2 of Australasia, Francis Henry Hill Guillemard |location= |page=238 |quote=It is not necessary, however, to conclude that the Malay power was established by the single invasion of a ... to another widely spoken Philippine tongue, Bisayan, but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that region .}}</ref> In 1912, Chinese engaged in mass violent riots against Dutch colonial rule in Surabaya and Batavia in the Dutch East Indies.<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=2 Feb 2022 |title=Bloody Riots During The 1912 Chinese New Year In The Archipelago Of The Dutch East Indies |work=VOI - Waktunya Merevolusi Pemberitaan |url=https://voi.id/en/memori/130523/bloody-riots-during-the-1912-chinese-new-year-in-the-archipelago-of-the-dutch-east-indies |access-date= |publisher= |quote= |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414030615/https://voi.id/en/memori/130523/bloody-riots-during-the-1912-chinese-new-year-in-the-archipelago-of-the-dutch-east-indies |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Among the Straits Chinese (Peranakan) descendants in [[Sulu]], the Philippines is Abdusakur Tan II, the governor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Antolihao |first1=Lou |title=Singapore Ethnic Mosaic, The: Many Cultures, One People |last2=Mesenas |first2=Clement |date=2017 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9813234758 |editor1-last=Mathew |editor1-first=Mathews |page=409 |chapter=Chapter 13 Filipino Community and Culture in Singapore |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4RIDwAAQBAJ&dq=abdusakur+straits+chinese+tan&pg=PA409}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=See |first=T. Ang |title=Migration, Indigenization And Interaction: Chinese Overseas And Globalization |date=2011 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9814458269 |editor-last=Suryadinata |editor-first=Leo |location= |page=237 |chapter=Part 3 South and Southeast Asia 3. Localization of the Chinese in the Philippines |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA-7CgAAQBAJ&dq=abdusakur+straits+chinese+tan&pg=PA237}}</ref>

Many Straits Chinese (Peranakans) migrated from Singapore to Jolo, Sulu and Mindanao to live and trade among the Moro Muslims like the Tausug people and Maguindanaons and sell weapons, rifles, cannon and opium to them in exchange for gutta-percha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA128 |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971693862 |pages=128–131}}</ref> Tausug and Chinese married each other and Chinese also converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA127 |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971693862 |page=127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YNuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22had+intermarried+with+Taosug+commoners+or+slaves+and+accepted+Islam%22 |title=Philippine Studies, Volumes 25-26 |date=1977 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila |others=Contributors Jesuits. Philippine Province, Ateneo de Manila University |location= |page=69 |quote=Often, these Chinese had intermarried with Taosug commoners or slaves and accepted Islam to improve their status . In this period it was not at all unusual for powerful Taosug to provide Chinese with the wherewithal to trade – the ...}}</ref> Moros carried out suicide juramentado attacks against the Japanese.<ref>{{cite book |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4BEAAAQBAJ&dq=suicide+commandos+revived+japanese&pg=PA125 |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |date=2007 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824864521 |edition=illustrated |location= |page=125 |quote=Retaliation against local populations for guerrilla actions led to a revival of the suicide commando (juramentado), who attackedsmall groups of Japanese anddied in the fighting.Also, there were guerrilla units dominated by Muslim ...}}</ref> Moro juramentados used opium in their attacks against US soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLgPAAAAIAAJ&q=%22of+the+same+gold+cup+with+him+.+Death+%22 |title=The World's Work, Volume 47 |date=1924 |publisher=Doubleday, Page & Company |others=Contributors Walter Hines Page, Arthur Wilson Page |location= |page=183 |quote=... he had a repu- of the same gold cup with him . Death was tation for power just short of the Almighty . meat and drink, the Juramentados went to it It was said that in the days of Arolas, Sulu like you and I would go to dinner .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6ZQAQAAMAAJ&q=%22of+the+same+gold+cup+with+him+.+Death+%22 |title=Mr. Archer, U. S. A.: As Told to R. H. Platt, Jr |last2=Platt |first2=Rutherford Hayes |date=1924 |publisher=Doubleday, Page |location= |page=178 |quote=they were killed by a Christian they sat on the right hand of Mahomet and drank out of the same gold cup with him . Death was meat and drink; the Juramentados went to it like you and I would go to dinner . |author-link=}}</ref> American military officers Charles Wilkes saw Sulu Moro Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand (spelling error of Jamalul Kiram) and his sons smoke opium and he had bloodshot eyes because of it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zarco |first1=Ricardo M. |date=1995 |title=A Short History of Narcotic Drug Addiction in the Philippines, 1521-1959 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23898530 |journal=Philippine Sociological Review |volume=43 |issue=1/4 |pages=1–15 |doi= |jstor=23898530 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-01-21 |title=Early Filipino warriors used drugs to enhance their killing capabilities (or did they?) |url=https://filipiknow.net/early-filipino-warriors-used-drugs-to-enhance-their-killing-capabilities/ |access-date= |website=FilipiKnow – The Most Trusted Online Learning Site for Filipinos |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rahmat |first=Hadijah Bte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZwPEAAAQBAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=RA1-PA10 |title=Abdullah Bin Abdul Kadir Munshi (In 2 Volumes) |date=2020 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9811205811 |location= |page=10 |quote=Wilkes met the Sultan of Sulu, Sultan Mohammad Damaliel Kisand, a Muslim king who ... cutlery and crockery, opium, and “arms of all kinds” (Wilkes, 1842). |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=1842 - Naval History and Heritage Command |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/art/exhibits/exploration-and-technology/alfred-agate-collection/1842.html |access-date= |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IqNbAAAAQAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA277 |title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition: During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, Volume 2 |date=1852 |publisher=Ingram, Cooke |isbn= |series=National illustrated library |volume=1-5 of United States Exploring Expedition |location= |page=277 |quote=... he was under the effects of opium, of which they all smoke large quantities . ... the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand, but said that he might feel ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1xHAAAAYAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA337 |title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, Volume 5 |date=1845 |publisher=Lea and Blanchard |isbn= |series=United States. Navy Dept |location= |page=337 |quote=... gratitude or obligation for the sight of His Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand, but said that he might feel grateful ... influence of opium . |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvlWAAAAcAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA620 |title=Voyage round the World, etc |date=1851 |publisher=G. P. Putnam |isbn= |location= |page=620 |quote=... the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand, but said that he might feel grateful to me if he ... as though he was constantly under the influence of opium . |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Chq7EQhwCD0C&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA337 |title=United States Exploring Expedition: During the Year 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, Volume 5 |date=1845 |publisher=C. Sherman |others=Contributor United States. Congress |isbn= |location= |page=337 |quote=... Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand, but said that he might feel grateful to me if ... as though he was constantly under the influence of opium ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1ZHAAAAYAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA337 |title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition ... 1838-1842, Volume 5 |date=1851 |publisher=Putnam |isbn= |location= |page=337 |quote=... of His Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand, but said that he might feel grateful ... as though he was constantly under the influence of opium . |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i44NAQAAMAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA359 |title=Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, Volume 4 |date=1931 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |isbn= |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=David Hunter |series=Department of State publication |location= |page=359 |quote=... was under the effects of opium, of which they all smoke large quantities . ... “ Wilkes ' Damaliel Kisand must be a writer's error for JamâlulKirâm . |number=Dept. of state. Publication no. 175, 453, 645, 1017}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Datu Uto received Spencer and Enfield rifles from Straits Chinese (Peranakan) merchants.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&dq=spencer+enfield+sulu+chinese+taosug&pg=PA129 |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971693862 |location= |page=129 |quote=4 Once the Spanish began the calculated destruction of Sulu shipping, Chinese merchants freighted their goods from ... the Taosug and Chinese of Maimbung ( the de facto capital of the Sultanate ) but now the Enfield and Spencer rifles ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YNuAAAAMAAJ&q=spencer+enfield+sulu+chinese+taosug |title=Philippine Studies, Volumes 25-26 |date=1977 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila |others=Jesuits. Philippine Province, Ateneo de Manila University |isbn= |location= |page=72 |quote=... exports went to Sulu . After 1876 Labuan still found its principal customers in the Taosug and Chinese of Maimbung ( the de facto capital of the Sultanate ) but now the Enfield and Spencer rifles, assorted pistols, and gunpowder ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schult |first=Volker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyiNDRUOm_EC&dq=spencer+Gewehre+sulu&pg=PA64 |title=Wunsch und Wirklichkeit: deutsch-philippinische Beziehungen im Kontext globaler Verflechtungen 1860-1945 |date=2008 |publisher=Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH |isbn=978-3832518981 |volume=8 of Berliner Südostasien-Studien/Berlin studies on South East Asia |location= |page=64 |issn=1619-7593 |quote=Zwischen 1870 und 1886 verloren die Taosug ihre Rolle als Umschlaghändler im Sulu-Archipel Die Gründe lagen in der spanischen ... Von dort transportierten die Chinesen Enfield und Spencer Gewehre weiter zu den Maginda- nao von Buayan, ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLJBAQAAMAAJ&dq=waffen+enfield+sulu&pg=PA53 |title=Globus, Volume 46 |date=1884 |publisher=Bibliographischen Institut |isbn= |location= |page=53 |quote=Die Hinrichtung ist auf Sulu ein Att scheußsind, nachzuahmen, daß sie bei der Billigkeit ihrer Erzeug- licher Barbarei ... Die Chinesen importiren überdies Waffen, schen Stadt zurück, um die nöthigen Vorbereitungen zur Munition ... |author-link=}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Lantaka swivel bronze cannon were sold by Chinese to the Moros who were fighting the Americans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=James R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgWnN4hyjoQC&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA45 |title=The Moro War: How America Battled a Muslim Insurgency in the Philippine Jungle, 1902-1913 |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1608193653 |location= |page=45 |quote=Having fought one pitched battle at Bayan against the Moros, the Americans had acquired a good idea of their ... the Moros obtained in trade with the Chinese or manufactured themselves small-caliber bronze swivel guns called lantakas. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Edgerton |first=Ronald K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdPXDwAAQBAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PT289 |title=American Datu: John J. Pershing and Counterinsurgency Warfare in the Muslim Philippines, 1899-1913 |date=2020 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0813178967 |edition=illustrated |series=Battles and Campaigns |location= |page= |quote=... consisting of felled trees adat customary law agama kinship-based community among Maranao Moros agung brass gong amuk ... panglima among Tausug Moros laksamana lantaka small, muzzle-loaded brass cannon usually of Chinese manufacture ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ScgAQAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=RA5-PA17 |title=Journal, Volumes 6-7 |date=1926 |publisher= |isbn= |location= |page=17 |quote=Smoking Lantakas : Moros Mad in Lanao lic works have been established, that in these things themselves lie very largely the solution of the problem of government . Even the Malanao desires the aid of capital and of Americans, but a ... |author-link=}}</ref> A novel was written about this.<ref>{{cite book |last=Denson |first=Gene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Tz9CAAAQBAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PT288 |title=Mindanao: A Novel of the Philippine Insurrection |date=2015 |publisher=X libris US |isbn=978-1503540972 |location= |page= |quote=... the Moro riflemen and embrasures were constructed for the Moro cannon that included several crude Chinese lantakas. ... of a bullet and feeling dreadfully vulnerable, Jaime crouched low as the American 3.6 inch mortars opened fire. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Malcolm |first=George Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtoBAAAAMAAJ&q=lantaka+moro+chinese+american |title=The Commonwealth of the Philippines |date=1936 |publisher=D. Appleton-Century Company, incorporated |others=Contributors Philippines, Philippines islands |isbn= |series=Philippine law collection World constitutions illustratedn |location= |page=47 |quote=Friend of Moros, Chinese, Spaniards, Americans, and Filipinos . ... The wealthiest Moro of his day . ... ran from an engraved lantaka ( THE MOROS AND PAGANS 47 Datu Piang of a hundred or more wives and of a hundred or more children. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hurley |first=Vic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgacaW_qEOQC&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA303 |title=Swish of the Kris, the Story of the Moros, Authorized and Enhanced Edition |date=2010 |publisher=Cerberus Books |isbn=978-0615382425 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Christopher L. |edition=illustrated, reprint |location= |page=303 |quote=Note: The author lists by name a great number of individuals - Spaniards, Moros, and Americans - who were instrumental during both the Spanish occupation and the subsequent American occupation of Philippine Moro territories. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=University of the Philippines. Social Science Research Center |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvcZAAAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA169 |title=An Annotated Bibliography of Philippine Social Sciences: Economics, by A.G. Hufana and R.V. Díaz |date=1956 |publisher= |others=Alejandrino G. Hufana, Rony V. Díaz, University of the Philippines. Institute of Asian Studies |isbn= |volume=1 of An Annotated Bibliography of Philippine Social Sciences, Cecilio Lopez |location= |page=169 |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Orosa |first=Sixto Y. |title=The Philippine Review: (Revista Filipina); a Monthly Magazine in English and Spanish, Volume 4 |date=1919 |publisher= |isbn= |editor-last=Nieva |editor-first=Gregorio |location= |page=820 |chapter=The Flag Day in Jolo |quote=Moros not to exhibit the Filipino flag, but A fourth, representing Liberty, standtheir un - American efforts in no ... in an attitude of protecting ened or dulled the general enthusiasm . the three, was unfurling the American flag . |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nb87AQAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA820}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlI-AQAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=RA6-PA21 |title=Army-Navy-Air Force Register and Defense Times, Volume 44 |date=1908 |publisher= |isbn= |location= |page=21 |quote=No other milk approaches it China, the latter a colony of France . in actual food value or in any of the qualition ... In 1599 large numbers of Moro St., New York City, If your Druggist THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LANTAKA OF THE pirates ... |author-link=}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}}

Balinese women, Bugis women and other native women in Indonesia who married Han Chinese men were buried according to Chinese custom with Chinese characters on their gravestones instead of being cremated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salmon |first1=Claudine |date=2016 |title=Ancient Chinese Cemeteries of Indonesia as Vanishing Landmarks of the Past (17th-20th c.) Anciens cimetières d'Indonésie comme jalons d'un passé en voie de disparition (xviie-xxe s.) |journal=Chinese Deathscapes in Insulindia |volume=92 |issue= |pages=23–61 |doi=10.4000/archipel.282 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Straits Chinese, Baba Nyonya or Peranakan are descended from Malay women and Chinese men.<ref>{{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Timothy P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mR2_TTWL4C&dq=%22people+considered+them+as+offspring%22&pg=PA51 |title=Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia: Identity, Representation and Citizenship |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135931223 |edition=illustrated |page=51}}</ref>

==Culture==

===Clothing===
[[File:WLANL - mchangsp - Vitrine Baba Nonya (1).jpg|thumb|upright|left|''[[Kebaya]] Nyonya'' or ''Kebaya Encim'', a traditional Peranakan attire.]]

The Peranakan retained most of their ethnic and religious origins (such as ancestor worship), but assimilated the language and culture of the Malays.
The Nyonya's clothing, Baju Panjang (Long Dress) was adapted from the native Malay's Baju Kurung. It is worn with a [[batik]] [[sarong]] (batik wrap-around skirt) and three kerosang (brooches). [[Peranakan beaded slippers]] called ''Kasot Manek'' were hand-made with much skill and patience: strung, beaded and sewn onto canvas with tiny faceted glass cut beads (known as ''[[Peranakan cut beads|Manek Potong]]'') similar to ones from [[Bohemia]] (present-day [[Czech Republic]]).

Traditional ''kasot manek'' design often have European floral subjects, with colours influenced by Peranakan porcelain and batik sarongs. They were made into flats or bedroom slippers. But from the 1930s, modern shapes became popular and heels were gradually added.

In Indonesia, the Peranakans develop their own [[kebaya]], most notably ''kebaya encim'', derived from the name ''encim'' or ''enci'' to refer to a married Chinese woman.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Agnes Swetta Pandia |last2=Nina Susilo |date=13 January 2013 |title=Tantangan Bisnis Kebaya Encim |url=http://female.kompas.com/read/2013/01/13/10574438/Tantangan.Bisnis.Kebaya.Encim |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116064114/http://female.kompas.com/read/2013/01/13/10574438/Tantangan.Bisnis.Kebaya.Encim |archive-date=16 January 2013 |access-date=19 January 2013 |website=Female Kompas.com |language=id}}</ref> ''Kebaya encim'' was commonly worn by Chinese ladies in Javan coastal cities with significant Chinese settlements, such as [[Semarang]], Lasem, Tuban, [[Surabaya]], [[Pekalongan]] and [[Cirebon]]. It marked differently from Javanese kebaya with its smaller and finer embroidery, lighter fabrics and more vibrant colours. They also developed their own batik patterns, which incorporate symbols from China. The ''kebaya encim'' fit well with vibrant-coloured kain [[Batik#Pesisir Batik (Coastal Batik)|batik pesisiran]] (Javan coastal batik), which incorporated symbols and motives from China; such as dragon, phoenix, peony and lotus. For the Baba they will wear baju lokchuan (which is the Chinese men's full costume) but the younger generation they will wear just the top of it which is the long-sleeved silk jacket with Chinese collar or the batik shirt.

===Religion===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Schilderingen in het voorportaal van de Chinese tempel te Makassar. TMnr 60008243.jpg|thumb|A Chinese temple in [[Makassar]], [[Dutch East Indies]] (present-day Indonesia) c. 1900 – 1920.]]

Most Peranakans generally subscribed to Chinese beliefs systems such as [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]] and [[Han Buddhism]], and even [[Roman Catholic|Roman Christianity]] nowadays. Just like the Chinese, the Peranakans also celebrate [[Chinese New Year]], [[Lantern Festival]] and other [[List of observances set by the Chinese calendar|Chinese festivals]], while adopting the customs of the land they settled in, as well as those of their colonial rulers. There are traces of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Dutch people|Dutch]], [[British people|British]], [[Malay people|Malay]] and [[Indonesian people|Indonesian]] influences in Peranakan culture.<ref name="google"/>

The Peranakans still believe in ''pantang larang'' (meaning [[taboos]]) especially among the older generations. In some cases, quite a number the Peranakan's ''pantang larang'' are deemed too strict and complex. But today, most Peranakans no longer practice complex ''pantang larang'' to keep up with the modern times.

====Christianity====
[[File:The Chapel, Sculpture Square, Singapore - 20101020-04.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Kampong Kapor Methodist Church]], Singapore.]]
A significant number of the modern Peranakan community have embraced [[Christianity]], most notably in Indonesia.

In 2019, a new branch of Singapore-specific Peranakan intermarriages were found to exist within the early Roman Catholic Church starting from 1834. This early church was set up by French missionaries (Mission Enstrangeres de Paris Order) in 1832 on Bras Basah Road, on the grounds of the present day Singapore Art Museum. Approximately 26 intermarriages between mainly China-born Teochew men and Melaka Serani, Malay, Peranakan Chinese and Indian women, took place under the auspices of this church, between 1834 and the early 1870s. Most, if not all descendants, identify as Teochew Peranakans today.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Marc Sebastian Rerceretnam|title=A History of Immigrant Roman Catholics and Converts in Early Singapore 1832-1945|date=20 August 2021|publisher=Yesteryear Books|isbn=978-0-6452364-0-8|page=160}}</ref>

In Singapore, the [[Kampong Kapor Methodist Church]], founded in 1894 by an Australian missionary, [[Sophia Blackmore]], is considered one of the first Peranakan churches. During its establishment, Sunday service were conducted in [[Baba Malay]] language, and it is still one of the languages being used in their services.

Despite living in Muslim majority countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, converting to Christianity allows Peranakans to continue eating pork which is a key part of the Peranakan diet.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jacqueline Knorr|title=Creole Identity in Postcolonial Indonesia|date=15 March 2014|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-269-0|page=150}}</ref> Moreover, Peranakans were traditionally English educated at missionary schools, notably in Penang.

====Islam====
In Indonesia, Peranakan<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jacqueline Knorr|title=Creole Identity in Postcolonial Indonesia|date=15 March 2014|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-269-0|page=71}}</ref> referred to all Indonesian Chinese who had converted to Islam up until the 19th century. This indicated the importance of Islamic identity as a "criterion of indigenization." Later, Peranakan referred to all Indonesian Chinese born in the country, including those of descendants of mixed race unions.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jacqueline Knorr|title=Creole Identity in Postcolonial Indonesia|date=15 March 2014|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-269-0|page=135}}</ref> Large numbers of Peranakans, many from [[Fujian]] having prior experience with foreign Muslims who had a dominant position in that provinces most important seaport, adopted Islam in Java, strongly Muslim areas of Indonesia,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Reid|editor1-first=Anthony|editor2-last=Alilunas-Rodgers|editor2-first=Kristine|title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese|year=1996|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2446-4|page=74|edition=illustrated, reprint}}</ref> and Malaysia.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Radcliffe|editor1-first=Sarah|title=Culture and Development in a Globalizing World: Geographies, Actors and Paradigms|date=27 September 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-27458-1|pages=141–2|quote=A large number of Chinese settlers were converted to Islam. Having come largely from Fujian, they not only found it advantageous to adopt the predominant religion of the Javanese port towns, but in fact were familiar with the role of Islam in Fujian's trade. In [[Quanzhou]], Fujian's most important seaport by the late thirteenth century, both trade and administration were dominated by foreign Muslims and an Islamic diaspora promoted trade with the rest of Asia.}}</ref> As in the case of the Peranakans in [[Cirebon]], this conversion process occurred over several centuries<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Tan|editor1-first=Chee-Beng|title=Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Diaspora|date=11 February 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-23096-7|page=348}}</ref> and was even recorded before the Dutch seized [[Jakarta]].<ref name="Berghahn Books">{{cite book|author1=Jacqueline Knorr|title=Creole Identity in Postcolonial Indonesia|date=15 March 2014|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-269-0|page=137}}</ref> Many of these Peranakans in Indonesia who converted to Islam would marry into aristocratic dynasties.<ref name="Berghahn Books"/> One organisation of Indonesian Peranakan Muslims is the ''Persatuan Islam Tionghoa Indonesia'' (Association of Indonesian Chinese Muslims), which was formed in 1936 in [[Medan]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Leo Suryadinata|title=Prominent Indonesian Chinese: Biographical Sketches|year=1995|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-3055-03-2|page=256}}</ref> Some prominent Peranakan Muslims include the Indonesians Junus Jahja,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Leo Suryadinata|title=Prominent Indonesian Chinese: Biographical Sketches|year=1995|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-3055-03-2|page=46}}</ref> Abdul Karim Oei Tjeng Hien<ref>{{cite book|author1=Leo Suryadinata|title=Prominent Indonesian Chinese: Biographical Sketches|year=1995|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-3055-03-2|pages=51–2}}</ref> and Tjio Wie Tay<ref>{{cite book|author1=Leo Suryadinata|title=Prominent Indonesian Chinese: Biographical Sketches|year=1995|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-3055-03-2|pages=105–6}}</ref> and from [[Patani (historical region)|Pattani]], the Peranakan convert to Islam, Datu Seri Nara, who according to Wybrand of Warwijck was the most important commercial and military figure in [[Patani (historical region)|Pattani]] in 1602.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Montesano|editor1-first=Michael John|editor2-last=Jory|editor2-first=Patrick|title=Thai South and Malay North: Ethnic Interactions on the Plural Peninsula|year=2008|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-411-1|page=35|edition=reprint}}</ref>

===Food===
{{main|Peranakan cuisine}}

[[File:Buahkeluak.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Ayam buah keluak]]'', a traditional Peranakan dish.]]

Due to the culture of Nyonya and Babas is merged between Malay and Chinese and influence by Indonesia. Malacca was once the world's merchant gathering point enabling the birth of Baba and Nyonya ethnic group. Therefore, the Nyonya food can be summarized as "Malay Archipelago Delicacies of Nanyang Cuisine".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacky Liew |title=Truly Nyonya Malacca |year=2010 |publisher=Seashore |location=Malaysia |isbn=9789675413247 |page=18 |url=https://www.nlb.gov.sg/biblio/13558575 |access-date=18 June 2020|author1-link= Jacky Liew}}</ref>

From the Malay influence, a unique [[Peranakan cuisine|"Nyonya" cuisine]] has developed using typical Malay spices. Examples are ''chicken kapitan'', a dry chicken [[curry]] and ''inchi kabin'', a Nyonya version of fried chicken. ''Pindang bandeng'' is a common fish soup served in Indonesia during the Chinese New Year and so is a white round [[mooncake]] from [[Tangerang]] which is normally used during the [[Mid-Autumn Festival|Autumn Festival]]. ''[[Swikee|Swikee purwodadi]]'' is a Peranakan dish from [[Purwodadi Grobogan|Purwodadi]], a frog soup dish.

''Nyonya [[laksa]]'' is a very popular dish in Malacca, [[Malaysia]] while another variant called ''asam laksa'' is famous in Penang, Malaysia. ''Pongteh'' is also another popular and savoury dish of the Malaccan Peranakan community. The main ingredient is onion, black mushroom (optional), chicken (at times pork is used instead of chicken, hence it's called ''babi pongteh'') and fermented bean sauce. The Malaccan Nyonyas are well known for this dish.

Other dishes from the east coast of [[Peninsular Malaysia]] Peranakans in [[Kelantan]] include ''telur kesum'', ''ayam kerabu'' and ''khau jam'' are influenced by [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Malay cuisine|Malay]] and [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] cuisine. While in [[Terengganu]], popular Peranakan foods are such as the local version of crab cake, ''ayam pachok'' which resembles satay with a stronger flavour, fish in spicy tamarind sauce and slow-cooked chicken with palm sugar.<ref name="STperanakanganu">{{cite web |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/the-peranakans-of-terengganu |title=The Peranakans of Terengganu |publisher=Straits Times Singapore |date=2 February 2015 |access-date=26 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810224520/http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/the-peranakans-of-terengganu |archive-date=10 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Besides that, Peranakans of Malacca are also well known for a wide variety of traditional cakes ([[Kuih|''kueh'']] or ''[[kue]]'') such as ''lepak kacang'', ''[[Red tortoise cake|ang ku kue]]'' (a black variant is called ''kueh ku hitam''), [[Pineapple tart|''kueh tae'' or ''nastar'']], ''Nyonya [[Zongzi|bak chang]]'', [[Martabak manis|''apom balik'']] (Peranakan's version closely resembles Indonesian's ''[[serabi]]''), ''kueh bakol'', ''[[Tapai|tapae]]'', [[Kue kochi|''kueh kochi'']], ''kueh bongkong'', ''[[rempah udang]]'', ''pulot enti'', ''[[Kuih sepit|kueh gulong]]'' (another variant is ''[[Kuih sepit|kueh kapit]]''), ''kueh bolu'', ''galeng galoh'' (also known as ''[[kue seri muka|seri muka]]''), ''kueh bangket'' and many more. Traditional [[kueh]] (or [[kue]]) are sometimes made in conjunction with festivals that the Peranakans celebrate. For example, ''kueh genggang'' (also commonly known as ''kueh lapis''), is a type of multi layered cake, most often eaten during Chinese New Year to symbolise a ladder of continued prosperity.

A small number of restaurants serving Nyonya food can be found in Penang and Malacca in Malaysia; and Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya in Indonesia.

===Marriage===
[[File:Anonymous photograph of a Peranakan bride and groom dated 30 May 1939, The Intan, Singapore.jpg|thumb|upright|A Straits Peranakan bride and groom dated 30 May 1939.]]

It was not uncommon for early Chinese traders to take Malay women from Peninsular Malaya or Sumatra as wives or concubines.<ref name="google"/> Consequently, the Baba Nyonya display a mix of Sino-Malay cultural traits.<ref name="google"/>

Written records from the 19th and early 20th centuries show that ''Peranakan'' men usually took brides from within the local ''Peranakan'' community. Peranakan families occasionally imported brides from China and sent their daughters to China to find husbands.

Marriages within the community and of similar stature were the norm during that time. Wealthy men prefigured to marry a ''chin choay'': or matrilocal marriage where husband moved in with the wife's family.<ref name="google"/>

Proposals of marriage were made by a gift of a ''pinangan'', in a 2-tiered lacquered basket known as ''Bakul Siah'' in Malaysia or ''Tenong Keranjang'' in Indonesia, to the intended bride's parents brought by a go-between who speaks on behalf of the suitor. There are rare cases where wealthy Peranakans in the past used highly decorative glided pagoda trays (''Botekan Candi'' in Indonesian) instead of the ''Bakul Siah'' or ''Tenong Keranjang''. Most Peranakans have retained the [[Chinese ancestral worship|traditions of ancestor worship of the Chinese]], though some have converted to [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].

The wedding ceremony of the Peranakan is largely based on Chinese tradition, and is one of the most colourful wedding ceremonies in Malaysia. At Malacca weddings, the ''Dondang Sayang'', a form of extempore rhyming song in Malay sung and danced by guests at the wedding party, was a highlight. Someone would begin a romantic theme which was carried on by others, each taking the floor in turn, dancing in slow gyrations as they sang. It required quick wit and repartee and often gave rise to laughter and applause when a particularly clever phrase was sung. The melodic accents of the Baba-Nonya and their particular turns of phrase lead to the charm of this performance.

The important wedding rites had to be commenced on auspicious days at specific times, according to the ''pek ji'', the eight Chinese characters annotating one's birth date and time. At these rites, ''pantangs'' (taboos) were carefully observed – the wedding rituals had to be legitimised and witnessed by elders, deities and ancestors. Marriages were typically match-made. Parents and elders made the final decision, but the potential bride and bridegroom were also consulted in the process. Wedding items commonly utilised the prosperous colours of red, pink, orange, yellow and gold and were embellished with special motifs to ensure a good marriage. Similar to the Chinese, Peranakans believed that good things always come in pairs, therefore many wedding items came in pairs.

===Museums===
[[File:Pinang Peranakan Mansion.JPG|thumb|left|[[Pinang Peranakan Mansion]], stately mansion built at the end of the 19th century, residence and office of Kapitan Cina [[Chung Keng Quee]].]]

Historical and cultural items from the Peranakan culture are displayed in [[Baba Nyonya Heritage Museum]], [[Straits Chinese Jewellery Museum]] and other cultural establishments on Heeren Street, [[Jonker Walk|Jonker Street]] and other streets in the same neighbourhood in Malacca; the [[Pinang Peranakan Mansion]] in Penang, Malaysia; and at the [[Peranakan Museum]], [[Baba House]] and the Intan Museum in [[Singapore]]. Furniture, food, and even traditional clothes of the Baba and Nyonya are exhibited. Free weekly street shows featuring Baba performances, and traditional and pop Chinese cultural performances are found in Jonker Street in Malacca. The shows are part of the night market scene, and are usually crowded with shoppers, both local and foreign.

On 11 November 2011, [[Benteng Heritage Museum]] in [[Tangerang]], near Jakarta is opened to display mainly about [[Benteng Chinese]] uses an old genuine traditional Chinese Peranakan house. And in August 2013, the ''[[Museum Peranakan Indonesia]]'' was officially opened by the ''[[Yayasan Budaya Tionghoa Indonesia]]''. The museum is located at the [[Cheng Ho Museum]], next to the Hakka Museum, at the pavilion of [[Taman Budaya Tionghoa Indonesia]], [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]] in Jakarta.

Other Peranakan cultural collections such as batik and bead works can also be found in museums outside of [[South East Asia]]. [[Honolulu Museum of Art]] and [[Australian Museum]] are known to exhibit such collections. {{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

Apart from that, exhibition of Peranakan Chitty history, antiques and culture can be seen at the Chitty Museum in Kampung Chitty, Malacca, Malaysia. In 2013, there were controversies of development at the expense of demolishing part of Kampung Chitty, a historical and cultural village.<ref name="Peranakan Chitty">{{cite news |url=http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/now-development-threatens-historical-site-in-malacca |title=Now, development threatens historical site in Malacca |newspaper=The Malaysian Insider |access-date=14 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221113723/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/now-development-threatens-historical-site-in-malacca |archive-date=21 February 2014 }}</ref> A proposal to construct a condominium, a hotel and a road cutting through the village are seen as a threat affecting the residents and a temple built in 1827.<ref name="Kampung Chitty">{{cite news |url=http://my.news.yahoo.com/39-road-kg-chitty-could-destroy-homes-39-043200736.html |title=Road through Kg Chitty could destroy homes |work=Yahoo! News |access-date=14 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302014551/http://my.news.yahoo.com/39-road-kg-chitty-could-destroy-homes-39-043200736.html |archive-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In Kelantan, the {{Lang|ms|Persatuan Peranakan Cina Kelantan}} or the Kelantan Chinese Peranakan Association (abbreviated as PPCK) have opened a gallery which provides visitors with various insights into the Kelantanese Chinese Peranakan culture.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vijayan |first=Sheela |date=27 November 2023 |title=Learn all about the Peranakan Chinese in Kelantan |work=[[Free Malaysia Today]] |url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/leisure/2023/11/27/learn-all-about-the-peranakan-chinese-in-kelantan/ |access-date=4 December 2023}}</ref>

===Political affinity===
[[File:StraitsChinese Pottery Phoenix.JPG|thumb|Multichrome Modern Chinese-made replica enamel porcelain tea tray with a traditional Peranakan "fenghuang".]]

Many Peranakan were active in trade and considered supportive of continued European rule in Malaysia and Indonesia.<ref name="google"/> Peranakans often played the role of middleman of the British and the Chinese, or the Chinese and Malays, because they were mostly English educated and spoke Malay more fluently than newer Chinese immigrants. {{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

By the middle of the twentieth century, most Peranakan were English or Dutch-educated at Western-style institutions. Peranakans readily embraced [[Western culture]] and education as a means to advance economically thus administrative and civil service posts were often filled by prominent Straits Chinese. Many in the community chose to convert to Christianity due to its perceived prestige and proximity to the preferred company of British and Dutch officials.<ref name="google"/>

The Peranakan community thereby became very influential in Malacca and [[Singapore]] and were known also as the '''King's Chinese''' due to their loyalty to the British Crown. Because of their interaction with different cultures and languages, most Peranakans were (and still are) trilingual, being able to converse in Chinese, Malay, and English. {{citation needed|date=November 2021}} Common vocations were as merchants, traders, and general intermediaries between China, Malaya and the West; the latter were especially valued by the British and Dutch. {{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

Things started to change in the first half of the 20th century, with some Peranakans starting to support Malaysian and Indonesian independence.
In Indonesia three Chinese communities started to merge and become active in the political scene. {{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

They were also among the pioneers of Indonesian newspapers. In their fledgling publishing companies, they published their own political ideas along with contributions from other Indonesian writers. In November 1928, the Chinese weekly Sin Po ({{lang-zh|links=no|t= 新報|p= xīn bào}}) was the first paper to openly publish the text of the national anthem ''Indonesia Raya''. On occasion, those involved in such activities ran a concrete risk of imprisonment or even of their lives, as the Dutch colonial authorities banned nationalistic publications and activities. {{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

Chinese were active in supporting the independence movement during the 1940s Japanese occupation, when the all but the so-called "Overseas Chinese Association", or residents of Chinese ancestry ({{lang-zh|links=no|t=華僑中會|p=Huáqiáo Zhōnghuì}}) were banned by the Japanese military authorities. Some notable pro-independence activists were [[Siauw Giok Tjhan]], [[Liem Koen Hian]], and [[Yap Tjwan Bing]], a member of ''[[Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia]]'', who in the 1960s became a citizen of the United States.

=== Chinese cultural Influence on Southeast Asian Muslims ===
Muslim Southeast Asians adopted Chinese symbols like the colour yellow for royals, including Malays, Javanese and [[Moros]].

One Dutch mentioned "yellow Chinese belts which only the Javanese will buy."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ma |first=Debin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6xBDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22yellow+Chinese+belts+which+only+the+Javanese+will+buy.%22&pg=PA242 |title=Textiles in the Pacific, 1500–1900 |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-89561-3 |edition=reprint |series=The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500-1900 |location= |page=242}}</ref>

Malays and Dayaks in Borneo did not use milk or dairy probably due to Chinese influence.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=Mrs. Samuel Bryan |year=1913 |title=Mohammedanism in Borneo: Notes for a Study of the Local Modifications of Islam and the Extent of its Influence on the native Tribes |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.104346/2015.104346.Journal-Of-The-American-Oriental-Society-Vol33_djvu.txt |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |location=Philadelphia, Pa. |volume=33 |page=330 |doi=10.2307/592838 |jstor=592838}}</ref>

Malays adopted the [[Chinese zodiac#Asian|Chinese zodiac]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Farouk Yahya |title=Malay Magic and Divination in Illuminated Manuscripts |publisher=Brill |year=2015 |isbn=978-90-04-30172-6 |pages=296–306 |chapter=Glossary |chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004301726/B9789004301726-s011.xml}}</ref> The [[Dragon (zodiac)|Dragon]] (''Loong'') is normally equated with the [[nāga]] but it is sometimes called Big Snake (''ular besar'') while the [[Snake (zodiac)|Snake sign]] is called Second Snake (''ular sani''). This is also recorded in a 19th-century manuscript compiled by [[John Leyden]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leyden |first=John |url=http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=or_15936_fs001r |title=Notes and vocabularies in Malay, Thai, Burmese and other minor languages |publisher=[[The British Library]] |page=104 |chapter=Cycle of years used by the Malays |author-link=John Leyden |access-date=16 June 2022 |chapter-url=http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=or_15936_f103v |via=Digitised Manuscripts }}{{Dead link|date=November 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>

==Current status==
Peranakan culture has started to disappear in Malaysia and Singapore. Without support from the colonial government for their perceived ethnic independence, government policies in both countries following independence from colonial rule have resulted in the assimilation of Peranakans back into mainstream Chinese culture. Singapore classifies the Peranakans as ethnically Chinese, so they receive formal instruction in [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] as a second language (in accordance with the "Mother Tongue Policy") instead of Malay. In Malaysia, the standardisation of Malay as [[Bahasa Melayu]]—required for all ethnic groups—has led to a disappearance of the unique characteristics of Baba Malay.

[[File:Cina Benteng wedding.jpg|thumb|left|Mass wedding ceremony of [[Benteng Chinese]], [[Jakarta]] 2012.]]

In Indonesia, the Peranakan culture appears to be losing popularity to modern Western culture, but to some degree the Peranakans are still trying to retain their language, cuisines and customs. Young Peranakans still speak their creole language, although many young women do not wear the ''kebaya''. Marriages normally follow the western culture because the traditional Peranakan customs are losing popularity. Only three communities of Peranakan still uphold the traditional Peranakan wedding customs, Tangerang (by the Cina Benteng people), Makassar and Padang. Of the three communities the Cina Benteng people are the most adherent to the Peranakan culture, but their numbers are dwindling.<ref name="Pernikahan Peranakan">{{cite web |url=http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/02/05/18160273/Imlek.Prosesi.Pernikahan.China.Peranakan.Hanya.Bertahan.di.Tiga.Kota |title=Imlek, Prosesi Pernikahan China Peranakan Hanya Bertahan di Tiga Kota |access-date=10 July 2012 |date=5 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723123123/http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/02/05/18160273/Imlek.Prosesi.Pernikahan.China.Peranakan.Hanya.Bertahan.di.Tiga.Kota |archive-date=23 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Cina Benteng people are normally poor people and many seek, or have sought, opportunities in other areas. Some organisations do try to ease their burden of living.<ref name="Cina Benteng Get Free Health Service">{{Cite news |date=15 May 2012 |title=Cina Benteng Get Free Health Service |language=en |work=The Jakarta Post |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/05/15/cina-benteng-get-free-health-service.html |url-status=live |access-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725141945/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/05/15/cina-benteng-get-free-health-service.html |archive-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> As of May 2012, 108 Cina Benteng families are facing eviction from their traditional homes, the reason given by the Tangerang government being that the area they occupy is actually meant as a green space for the city. Most of these families are low income and have nowhere to move to, as the government is not providing enough money for them to relocate. Several traumatic eviction attempts at 2010 and 2011 ended in violence.<ref name="Cina Benteng Vows Fight Upcoming Eviction">{{Cite news |last=Multa Fidrus |date=19 May 2012 |title='Cina Benteng' Vows to Fight Upcoming Eviction |work=The Jakarta Post |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/05/19/cina-benteng-vows-fight-upcoming-eviction.html |url-status=dead |access-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725125326/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/05/19/cina-benteng-vows-fight-upcoming-eviction.html |archive-date=25 July 2012 }}</ref>

The migration of some Peranakan families, particularly the well-to-do, has led to a small Peranakan diaspora to neighbouring countries, mainly from [[Vietnam]]<ref name="Vietnamese diaspora">{{cite web |url=http://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/Asia/MalayChinese.htm |title=Chinese/Native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia |publisher=Color Q World |access-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215154123/http://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/Asia/MalayChinese.htm |archive-date=15 February 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> to [[Australia]].<ref name="Australian diaspora">{{cite web|url=http://www.theswanker.com/macammacam/2005/04/babas_and_nonya.html |title=babas_and_nonya.html |publisher=theswanker.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219091541/http://www.theswanker.com/macammacam/2005/04/babas_and_nonya.html |archive-date=19 February 2012}}</ref> The [[Indonesian riots of May 1998|1998 anti-Chinese riots]] in Indonesia during the [[Post-Suharto era#Fall of Suharto|fall of Suharto]] terrorised many Chinese Indonesians and Peranakans alike, causing Chinese Indonesian communities affected by the riots to leave the country. However, these communities are very small, and with the increasing use of the various languages in their respective countries, the use of Peranakan Malay or Baba Malay has been diluted, especially among the younger generation.

==Current associations==
Associations of Chinese Peranakans include The Peranakan Association Singapore (TPAS), Aspertina (''Asosiasi Peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia'') and the Gunong Sayang Association (GSA),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_1383_2010-05-24.html|title=Gunong Sayang Association {{!}} Infopedia|website=eresources.nlb.gov.sg|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103072429/https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_1383_2010-05-24.html|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> a performing arts group in Singapore. The Peranakan Association Singapore has over 2,000 members, and the Gunong Sayang Association has about 200 members. The Peranakan Association Singapore consists of a mix of young and old members, while the Gunung Sayang Association has primarily elderly or retired members. In Malacca, there is an Indian Peranakan Association known as the Chitty Melaka. This is a tightly knit community of Saivite Hindus.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiv Shanker Tiwary & P.S. Choudhary|title=Encyclopaedia Of Southeast Asia And Its Tribes (Set Of 3 Vols.)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YdEjAQAAIAAJ&q=Encyclopaedia+Of+Southeast+Asia+And+Its+Tribes+(Set+Of+3+Vols.)|year=2009|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-261-3837-1}}</ref> Chitty Peranakans display considerable similarity to Chinese Peranakans in terms of dressing, songs, folk dances and [[pantun]].

In Malaysia, there are Peranakan associations in Malacca, Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Kelantan, and Terengganu. The Peranakan association that is based in Kelantan is named the {{Lang|ms|Persatuan Peranakan Cina Kelantan}} (lit. the "Kelantan Chinese Peranakan Association", abbreviated as PPCK) while the one that is located in Terengganu is the {{Lang|ms|Persatuan Peranakan Cina Terengganu}} (lit. the "Terengganu Chinese Peranakan Association").<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-27 |title=Persatuan Peranakan Cina Kelantan |url=https://www.hati.my/persatuan-peranakan-cina-kelantan/ |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=Hati |language=ms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ali |first=Farah Shazwani |date=22 October 2019 |title=Keunikan peranakan Cina Terengganu |language=ms |work=[[Sinar Harian]] |url=https://www.sinarharian.com.my/article/53372/khas/kitalahmalaysia/keunikan-peranakan-cina-terengganu |access-date=4 December 2023}}</ref>

The Thai Peranakans live largely in the southern region of Thailand, especially the coastal areas beside the [[Andaman Sea]], including [[Krabi]], [[Phang Nga]], [[Phuket]], [[Ranong]], [[Satun]], and [[Trang province]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Koad |first=Phitsinee |last2=Dejpawuttikul |first2=Thanapas |date=2025-12-31 |title=The pursuit of history of Thai Peranakan Chinese and their translocal identity in the Malay-Thai peninsula |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2025.2582886 |journal=Cogent Arts & Humanities |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages= |doi=10.1080/23311983.2025.2582886|doi-access=free }}</ref> and have an Association as well.

There are also Peranakan associations in Australia: Melbourne, Perth and New South Wales.

==Media==
[[File:Nyonyah1952.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Cover art for a [[Hong Kong]] film, Nyonyah (1952) featuring a [[Kebaya]] Nyonya.]]

Interest in the Peranakan culture had begun as early as the 1950s with films from [[Hong Kong]] such as the ''Niangre / Nyonyah'' (Yue Feng, 1952), ''Fengyu Niuche Shui / Rainstorm in Chinatown'' (Yan Jun 1956), ''Niangre Yu Baba / Nonya And Baba'' (Yan Jun 1956), and ''Niangre Zhi Lian / Love With A Malaysian Girl'' (Lui Kei, 1969).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=E. K. |year=2010 |title=Hong Kong cinema and the portrayal of the Nanyang Chinese in the 1950s and 1960s |journal=Journal of Chinese Cinemas |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=155–168 |doi=10.1386/jcc.4.2.155_1 |s2cid=192179325}}</ref>

In Malaysia, a comedy drama series, ''Baba Nyonya'' was popular in the 1990s. The series is recognised by the Malaysian Book Of Records as the longest-running TV series in the country ever, lasting from the late 1980s until 2000, with 509 episodes in total.<ref name="Baba Nyonya Drama Series">{{cite news |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx/?file=%2f2011%2f10%2f5%2fnation%2f9630673 |title=66-year-old Baba Nyonya actor Chee Hood Siong dies |newspaper=The Star Online |access-date=17 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227060411/http://www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx/?file=%2f2011%2f10%2f5%2fnation%2f9630673 |archive-date=27 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Along the passing of the [[Post-Suharto era|Reform Era]] in Indonesia and the removal of the ban on Chinese culture, in 1999, Indonesian writer [[Remy Sylado]] released a novel called ''Ca-Bau-Kan: Hanya Sebuah Dosa'' raised the Peranakan culture and history in Indonesia.<ref name="Ng-2022">{{Cite web |last=Ng |first=Scott |date=2022-12-12 |title=Indonesian arts icon Remy Sylado has died at 77 |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/indonesian-arts-icon-remy-sylado-has-died-at-77-3365105 |access-date=2025-11-20 |website=NME |language=en-GB}}</ref> The novel was adapted into a film called ''[[Ca-bau-kan]]'' by [[Nia Dinata]] in 2002.<ref name="Ng-2022" /> [[Riri Riza]] directed a biographical film on an Indonesian student activist named [[Soe Hok Gie]] (played by [[Nicholas Saputra]]), entitled ''[[Gie]]'' in 2005. The film is based on a diary ''[[Catatan Seorang Demonstran]]'' written by [[Soe Hok Gie]], features a glimpse into the everyday life of an Indonesian Peranakan family in the 1960s. A novel that elevates the history and culture of the Benteng Chinese (''Cina Benteng'' is another term in Indonesian referring to Peranakan) titled ''Bonsai: Hikayat Satu Keluarga Cina Benteng'' written by Pralampita Lembahmata and published by Gramedia in 2011.

In 2008, a Singaporean drama series ''[[The Little Nyonya]]'' was aired in Singapore. The storyline circles around the biographical flashback of an extended Peranakan Chinese family in Malacca, Malaysia, is set in the 1930s and spans to over 70 years and several generations of three families. It gained popularity in Singapore<ref>{{cite web |last=Frois |first=Cheryl |date=31 December 2008 |title=MediaCorp Ch8's "The Little Nyonya" is highest rated series in 15 years |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/399476/1/.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116120652/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/399476/1/.html |archive-date=16 January 2009 |access-date=13 January 2009 |publisher=Channel NewsAsia}}</ref><ref name="DVD release">{{cite web |date=7 January 2009 |title=Catch The Little Nyonya again on DVD |url=http://www.mediacorptv.sg/en/buzzdetail/EDC090107-0000007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116170056/http://mediacorptv.sg/en/buzzdetail/EDC090107-0000007 |archive-date=16 January 2009 |access-date=9 January 2009 |publisher=MediaCorp TV}}</ref> and later in [[Asia]] especially within [[South East Asia]] region.<ref name="channelnewsasia Release">{{cite web |date=13 March 2009 |title=Over 5,000 sets of "The Little Nyonya" DVDs sold |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/401882/1/.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302232425/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/401882/1/.html |archive-date=2 March 2009 |access-date=13 March 2009 |publisher=Channel New Asia}}</ref> The filming of the drama took place in Malacca, Penang and Ipoh, Malaysia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jeanette Aw Slept For Only 2.5 Hours A Day For 4 Months When Filming The Little Nyonya In 2008 |url=https://www.8days.sg/entertainment/local/jeanette-aw-little-nyonya-slept-two-half-hours-four-months-caned-840916 |access-date=2025-11-20 |website=8days |language=en}}</ref>

In Yasmin Ahmad films ''Sepet'' and ''Gubra'' has featured Peranakan character as the lead actor's mother played by Peranakan actress Tan Mei Ling. Lead actors from the 1990s ''Baba Nyonya'' series were also featured in [[Wee Meng Chee|Namewee]]'s multi-language and multi-cultural film, ''[[Nasi Lemak 2.0]]'' in 2011, showcasing Peranakan culture.

==Notable Peranakans==

===Indonesia===
{{For|notable Indonesian people of Chinese descent|List of Chinese Indonesians}}
* [[Abdurrahman Wahid]]: The 4th President of Indonesia, and was the Chairman of Nadhlatul Ulama - the largest Muslim organization in the world.<ref name="Chinese1">{{cite book|last1=Lindsey|first1=Tim|last2=Pausacker|first2=Helen|title=Chinese Indonesians: Remembering, Distorting, Forgetting|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkaWBgAAQBAJ&q=Abdurrahman+Wahid+chinese+ancestry&pg=PA102|page=102|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=9789812303035}}</ref><ref name="Chinese2">{{cite book|last1=Lim|first1=Hua Sing|title=Japan and China in East Asian Integration|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJv6eO2Izm8C&q=Abdurrahman+Wahid+chinese+ancestry&pg=PA290|page=290|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=9789812307446}}</ref><ref name=handbook>{{cite book|last1=Esposito|first1=John|title=Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics|date=2013|publisher=OUP USA|page=570|isbn=9780195395891|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc7iAAAAQBAJ&q=nahdlatul+ulama+world%27s+largest&pg=PA570|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-date=9 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409003947/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc7iAAAAQBAJ&q=nahdlatul+ulama+world%27s+largest&pg=PA570|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Abimana Aryasatya]]: Actor
* [[Agnes Monica]]: Artist, singer<ref name="TTP">{{cite web |url=http://permalink.gmane.org/gmane.culture.region.china.budaya-tionghua/48590 |title=tentang totok peranakan |author=Amaliya |publisher=Chinese Culture and its history in Indonesian |year=2012 |access-date=20 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120125754/http://permalink.gmane.org/gmane.culture.region.china.budaya-tionghua/48590 |archive-date=20 January 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Amir Syamsuddin]]: [[Minister of Justice and Human Rights of Indonesia|Minister of Justice and Human Rights]] (2011–2014)
* [[Arief Budiman]]: Also known as Soe Hok Djin, the older brother of [[Soe Hok Gie]]<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Arsjad Rasjid]]: Indonesian business executive
* [[Petrus Kanisius Ojong|Auwjong Peng koen]]: Indonesian journalist, founder of [[Kompas]], a national newspaper
* [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]]: Politician
* [[Marcel Chandrawinata]]: Actor
* [[Chris John (boxer)|Chris John]]: Professional boxer
* [[Christian Hadinata]]: Badminton player<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Christian Sugiono]]: Actor
* [[Christianto Wibisono]]: Business analyst<ref name="PICBS">{{cite book|author=Leo Suryadinata|title=Prominent Indonesian Chinese: Biographical Sketches|year=1995|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-3055-03-2}}</ref>
* [[Chrisye]]: Singer
* [[Daniel Bambang Dwi Byantoro]]: Founder of [[Indonesian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Didik Nini Thowok]]: Dancer
* [[Erick Thohir]]: Businessman and Minister of State Owned Enterprises
* [[Fifi Young]]: Actress<ref name="TTP"/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Labrousse, P. |title=Entretien avec Fifi Young |journal=Archipel |volume=5 |year=1973 |pages=175–177 |doi=10.3406/arch.1973.1049}}</ref>
* [[Han Bwee Kong|Han Bwee Kong, Kapitein der Chinezen]]: magnate, government official and landlord in East Java
* [[Hok Hoei Kan]]: colonial politician, landlord, patrician and a member of the Han family of Lasem
* [[Ian Antono]]: Lead guitarist of [[God Bless (band)|God Bless]]
* [[Kartini Muljadi]]: businesswoman and owner of Tempo Scan Pacific
* [[Kho Sin-Kie]]: Professional tennis player<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Khouw Kim An|Khouw Kim An, 5th ''Majoor der Chinezen'' of Batavia]]: bureaucrat, last Chinese head of colonial Jakarta, member of the [[Khouw family of Tamboen]]
* [[Oen Giok Khouw|O. G. Khouw]]: philanthropist, landlord and member of the [[Khouw family of Tamboen]]
* [[Khouw Tian Sek|Khouw Tian Sek, ''Luitenant-titulair der Chinezen'']]: landlord, magnate and patriarch of the [[Khouw family of Tamboen]]
* [[Kwee Tek Hoay]]: Journalist, novelist<ref name="TTP"/><ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Kwik Kian Gie]]: Economist, Coordinating Minister of Economics and Finance (1999–2000), and National Development Planning Minister (2001–2004) of Indonesia
* [[Lie Kim Hok]]: Teacher, writer and a social worker of the [[Dutch East Indies]]<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Liem Swie King]]: National [[shuttler]]<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Loa Sek Hie]]: colonial politician, community leader, landlord and founder of [[Pao An Tui]]
* [[Marga T|Margaretha Tjoa Liang Tjoe]]: Novelist<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Mari Pangestu]]: Economist, Trade Minister (2004–2011), and Tourism and Creative Economy Minister (2011) of Indonesia
* [[Mario Teguh]]: Motivational speaker
* [[Mira W|Mira Widjaja (Wong)]]: Author, daughter of [[Wong brothers|Othniel]]<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Oei Tiong Ham|Oei Tiong Ham, Majoor-titulair der Chinezen]]: Businessman and founder of the largest conglomerate in the [[Dutch East Indies]], Oei Tiong Ham Concern<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Oey Tamba Sia|Oey Tamba ''Sia'']]: playboy, tycoon's heir and criminal
* [[Phoa Keng Hek]]: Social worker and entrepreneur<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Phoa Liong Gie]]: colonial politician, jurist and newspaper owner, great-nephew of Phoa Keng Hek<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Rudy Hartono]]: National [[shuttler]]<ref name="TTP"/><ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Soe Hok Gie]]: Student activist<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Priyayi|Kyai Ronggo Ngabehi]] [[Soero Pernollo]]: Chinese-Javanese nobleman, bureaucrat and police chief
* [[Susi Susanti]]: National [[shuttler]]<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Tan Joe Hok]]: National [[shuttler]]<ref name="PICBS"/>
* [[Tan Liok Tiauw]]: Colonial landlord, plantation owner, industrialist<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lucas|first1=Anton|last2=Warren|first2=Carol|title=Land for the People: The State and Agrarian Conflict in Indonesia|year=2013|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Ohio|isbn=9780896802872|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fnYltof9Pr4C&q=%22tan+liok+tiauw%22|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Tio Ie Soei]]: Writer and journalist of the [[Dutch East Indies]]<ref name="PICBS"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Ayu Utami|title=Larung|year=2001|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|isbn=978-979-9023-63-6}}</ref>
* [[Titi DJ]]: Artist, singer
* [[Thung Sin Nio]] (1902–1996): physician, politician, suffragist

===Malaysia===
{{For|notable Malaysian people of Chinese descent|List of Malaysian Chinese}}
* [[:ms:Andre Goh|Andre Goh]]: Singer<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.bharian.com.my/hiburan/selebriti/2022/01/917516/suara-andre-goh-belum-dimamah-usia|title=Suara Andre Goh belum dimamah usia|publisher=Berita Harian|date=31 January 2022|access-date=31 January 2022}}</ref>
* [[Mohd Azizan Baba|Azizan Baba]]: Former professional footballer
* [[Chan Kim Boon]]: Writer, poet, novelist and translator
* [[Chong Hon Nyan]]: Former cabinet minister
* [[Chua Boon Huat]]: Former hockey player
* [[Chuah Guat Eng]]: Novelist<ref name="archive">{{cite book|author=Jane Eldridge Miller|title=Who's who in Contemporary Women's Writing|year=2001|publisher=Psychology Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincontemp0000unse/page/64 64]|isbn=978-0-415-15981-4|url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoincontemp0000unse/page/64}}</ref>
* [[Chung Thye Phin]]: Last [[Kapitan China]] of the state of [[Perak]] and [[British Malaya]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Knapp|title=Chinese Houses of Southeast Asia: The Eclectic Architecture of Sojourners and Settlers|year=2013|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-1-4629-0587-4}}</ref>
* [[Damian Yeo Shen Li]]: Politician and lawyer
* [[Desmond Ho]]: Landscape designer<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ho, Desmond Lai Seng 1961–|title=Desmond Ho's guide to beautiful home gardens |year=2013|isbn=978-967-415-164-5|location=Petaling Jaya, Selangor|oclc=957334446}}</ref>
* [[Emily Lim]]: Actress, model, host and nutritionist
* [[Gan Eng Seng]]: Malaccan born businessman and philanthropist in Singapore and [[British Malaya|Malaya]]<ref name="PMVG">{{cite book|author=Peranakan Museum|title=Peranakan Museum Visitor Guide – Enter the world of the Peranakans|year=2008|publisher=National Heritage Board}}</ref>
* [[Janet Khoo]]: Actress
* Johnny Lim: Retired lieutenant-general<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2025/06/1235248/johnny-lim-makes-history-nations-first-three-star-general-chinese|title= Johnny Lim makes history as nation's first three-star general of Chinese descent [WATCH]|publisher=New Straits Times|date=24 June 2025|access-date=24 June 2025}}</ref>
* Kenny Chan: Actor and chef<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.astroawani.com/berita-hiburan/pelakon-legenda-baba-nyonya-datuk-kenny-chan-meninggal-dunia-178070|title=Pelakon legenda Baba Nyonya, Datuk Kenny Chan meninggal dunia|publisher=Astro Awani|date=13 June 2018|access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref>
* [[Khoo Kay Kim]]: Historian
* [[:ms:Kimberly Chuah|Kimberly Chuah]]: Actress, host and model
* [[:ms:Lina Tan|Lina Tan]]: Film and television producer
* [[Mavin Khoo]]: Dancer, son of [[Khoo Kay Kim]]
* [[Nathaniel Tan]]: Politician and writer
* [[Ong Kim Swee]]: Football manager and former professional footballer
* [[Robert Choe]]: Former professional footballer
* [[Sharon Wee]]: Former professional squash player
* Sylvia Lee Goh: Painter<ref>{{cite web|url=https://awarewomenartists.com/en/artiste/sylvia-lee-goh/|title=Sylvia Lee Goh |publisher=Aware Women Artists}}</ref>
* [[Tan Chay Yan]]: Rubber plantation merchant and philanthropist, grandson of [[Tan Tock Seng]]<ref name="SAPCD">{{cite book|author=Leo Suryadinata|title=Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent: A Biographical Dictionary, Volume I & II|year=2012|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4345-21-7}}</ref>
* [[Tan Cheng Lock]]: Founder and first President of Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA)<ref>{{cite book|author=Agnes Tan Kim Lwi|title=Tun Dato Sir Cheng Lock Tan: A Son of Malacca|year=1985|publisher=[Singapore : s.n.]|oclc=225950691}}</ref>
* [[Tan Siew Sin]]: Third President of Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and first Finance Minister of Malaysia (1959–1974), son of [[Tan Cheng Lock]]<ref name="Singapore">{{cite book|author=Lily Zubaidah Rahim|title=Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-01397-5}}</ref>
* [[Tan Tock Seng]]: Malaccan born merchant and philanthropist in Singapore<ref name="SAPCD"/>
* [[Tan Twan Eng]]: [[Penang]]-born novelist known for being the first Malaysian recipient of the [[Man Asian Literary Prize]].<ref name="idar">{{cite web|url=https://www.asymptotejournal.com/interview/an-interview-with-tan-twan-eng/|title=An interview with Tan Twan Eng|access-date=4 July 2019|author=Nicole Idar|publisher=Asymptote Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704135559/https://www.asymptotejournal.com/interview/an-interview-with-tan-twan-eng/|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[:ms:Teo Kok Seong (ahli akademik)|Teo Kok Seong]]: Academician

===Singapore===
* [[Chee Soon Juan]]: Secretary-General of the [[Singapore Democratic Party]]
* [[Chua Jim Neo]]: Chef and cookbook writer
* [[David Lim Kim San]]: Head of Music Department in the Ministry of Education (1969)
* [[Desmond Lee (Singaporean politician)|Desmond Lee]]: Cabinet Minister and Chairman of the [[People's Action Party]]
* [[Dick Lee]]: Celebrity pop singer, composer and playwright
* [[Gan Eng Seng]]: Malaccan born businessman and philanthropist in [[Straits Settlement]] of Singapore and [[British Malaya|Malaya]]<ref name="PMVG"/>
* [[Goh Keng Swee]]: Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore
* [[Ivan Heng]]: Actor
* [[Lee Hsien Loong]]: Third Prime Minister of Singapore
* [[Lee Kuan Yew]]: First Prime Minister of modern Singapore
* [[Lim Boon Keng]]: Penang born physician and social activist in Singapore
* [[Lim Kim San]]: Former Cabinet Minister<ref name="PMVG"/>
* [[Lim Nee Soon]]: Merchant and entrepreneur of the [[Straits Settlement]] of Singapore
* [[Pierre Png]]: Mediacorp artiste
* [[Piya Tan]]: Buddhist writer and teacher
* [[Seow Poh Leng]]: Banker, philanthropist and a committee member of the [[Straits Settlement]] (Settlement of Singapore)
* [[Song Hoot Kiam]]: Teacher, cashier and a community leader
* [[Song Ong Siang|Sir Song Ong Siang]]: Lawyer and active citizen of the [[Straits Settlement]] of Singapore, son of [[Song Hoot Kiam]]
* [[Tan Chin Tuan]]: Chairman of [[OCBC Bank|OCBC]]
* [[Tan Kim Ching]]: Politician and businessman, the eldest son of [[Tan Tock Seng]], major donor of [[Tan Si Chong Su]]
* [[Tan Kim Seng]]: Malaccan born philanthropist and merchant<ref name="PMVG"/>
* [[Tan Tock Seng]]: Malaccan born merchant and philanthropist of the [[Straits Settlement]] of Singapore, leader of Hokkien clan and major donor of [[Thian Hock Keng]]<ref name="SAPCD"/>
* [[Toh Chin Chye]]: Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore
* [[Tony Tan]]: Seventh President of Singapore
* [[Violet Oon]]: Chef, restaurateur, and food writer specializing in Peranakan cuisine
* [[Walter Woon]]: Lawyer, academic, diplomat, politician and 7th Attorney-General of Singapore
* [[Wee Kim Wee]]: Fourth President of Singapore

=== Thailand ===

* [[Khanaporn Janjirdsak]]: Chef of Thai Peranakan cuisine in [[Trang, Thailand|Trang]]
* [[Treechada Petcharat]]: Actress and model<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pacina |first=Michelle De |date=2023-03-04 |title=Thailand's 'most beautiful transgender woman' and husband wear $580K in attire at extravagant wedding |url=https://nextshark.com/thailand-most-beautiful-transgender-woman-wedding |access-date=2025-11-22 |website=NextShark |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahitsaraphakdi]]: Provincial administrator<ref>{{Cite news |last=Thepbamrung |first=Nattha |date=2018-07-29 |title=Lost in peranakan wonders |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/social-and-lifestyle/1512114/lost-in-peranakan-wonders |access-date=2025-11-22 |work=Bangkok Post |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cabang Atas]]
* [[Minh Hương]]
* [[Overseas Chinese]]
* [[Sangley]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|last=Tong |first=Lillian |year=2014 |title=Straits Chinese Gold Jewellery |publisher=Penang Peranakan Mansion |location=Malaysia}}
* {{Cite book|last=Santosa |first=Iwan |year=2012 |title=Peranakan Tionghoa Di Nusantara |publisher=ASPERTINA & Kompas Penerbit Buku |location=Indonesia |isbn=978-979-709-641-0}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Kee |first1=Ming-Yuet |author2=Low Hock Seng |year=2009 |title=Peranakan Chinese Porcelain: Vibrant Festive Ware Of The Straits Chinese |publisher=Tuttle |location=Singapore |isbn=978-0-8048-4007-1}}
* {{Cite book|last=Somers |first=Mary F. |year=2009 |title=Peranakan Chinese Politics In Indonesia |publisher=Equinox Publishing |location=Singapore |isbn=978-602-8397-35-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ho |first=Wing Meng |year=2008 |title=Straits Chinese Furniture: A Collector's Guide |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-261-665-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mahmood |first=Datin Seri Endon |year=2004 |title=The Nyonya Kebaya: A Century of Straits Chinese Costume
|publisher=Periplus Editions |location=Malaysia |isbn=978-0-7946-0273-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=Teo |first=Kok Seong |year=2003 |title=Peranakan Chinese of Kelantan: A Study of the Culture, Language & Communication of an Assimilated Group in Malaysia |publisher=Coronet Books Inc. |location=Malaysia |isbn=978-1-901919-21-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rudolph |first=Jürgen |year=1998 |title=Reconstructing Identities: A Social History of the Babas in Singapore |publisher=Ashgate |location=Singapore}}
* {{Cite book|last=Khoo |first=Joo Ee |year=1998 |title=The Straits Chinese: A Cultural History |publisher=The Pepin Press |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |isbn=978-90-5496-008-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Chang |first=Queeny |year=1981 |title=Memories of a Nonya |publisher=Eastern Universities Press Sdn Bhd |location=Singapore and Selangor, Malaysia |isbn=978-9971-71-145-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Chin Koon |author-link=Lee Chin Koon |year=1974 |title=Mrs. Lee's Cookbook: Nonya Recipes And Other Favourite Recipes |publisher=s.n. |location=Malaysia |asin=B0006CNVR6}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box
|onlinebooks=no
|by=no
}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930144804/http://www.wayang.net/?page_id=151 "Benteng Chinese: Barely Indonesian" in "Invisible People: Poverty and Empowerment in Indonesia]
* Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, ''[http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120510162540&aiid=120524153854 Phuket's Historic Peranakan Community]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102016/http://www.singaporevr.com/vrs/PeranakanMuseum/Museum.html Interactive 360 X 360 degree VR preview of The Peranakan Museum]
*[https://www.gsa.org.sg/ Gunong Sayang Association]
*[http://www.peranakan.org.sg/ The Peranakan Association of Singapore]
*[https://babahouse.nus.edu.sg/ NUS Baba House]
* [http://www.aspertina.org/ Asosiasi Peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520190250/http://www.aspertina.org/ |date=20 May 2015 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140125150907/http://peranakan.org.au/ Peranakan Association Australia Incorporated]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061127234307/http://www.moe.gov.sg/esp/eduinfo/mt.htm Singapore's Mother Tongue Policy]
* [http://peranakantown.site90.com/ Petition for a Peranakan Town in Singapore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810033411/http://peranakantown.site90.com/ |date=10 August 2010 }}
* [http://www.pinangperanakanmansion.com.my/ Pinang Peranakan Mansion]
* [http://babanyonyamuseum.com/ Baba & Nyonya House Museum, Melaka]
* [http://the-intan.com/ The Intan Museum, Singapore]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090527130646/http://www.photo-outing.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4%3Arumah-peranakan&catid=1%3Apenang&Itemid=3&lang=en Review over one of the peranakan in Penang] from [https://web.archive.org/web/20090618055610/http://www.photo-outing.com/ photo-outing.com]
* [http://www.wiratama.net/ Some Articles On Peranakan Communities in Java] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708081254/http://www.wiratama.net/ |date=8 July 2013 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080720194735/http://acm.org.sg/pressrelease_docs/19_doc3_ANNEX_II_Star_Pieces_FINAL.pdf Peranakan collections from the Peranakan Museum, Singapore]
* [http://peranakan.hostoi.com/Page1.htm The Peranakan Story] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035637/http://peranakan.hostoi.com/Page1.htm |date=4 March 2016 }}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/ref/SI/NEI/#chinese Islands And Peoples Of The Indies]

{{commons category|Peranakan}}
{{Han subgroups}}
{{Overseas Chinese2}}
{{Ethnic Groups of Indonesia}}
{{Ethnic groups in Malaysia}}
{{Ethnic groups in Singapore}}
{{Ethnic groups in Thailand}}

[[Category:Peranakan Chinese| ]]
[[Category:Chinese diaspora in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Chinese diaspora in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Chinese diaspora in Singapore]]
[[Category:Chinese diaspora in Thailand]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Subgroups of the Han Chinese]]

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

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| title = 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
| image = {{multiple image|border=infobox|perrow=1/2/2|total_width=300
| image1 = US Navy 050102-N-9593M-040 A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia.jpg
| image2 = 041231중앙119구조본부 서남아시아 지진해일 출동3.jpg
| image3 = Man searching through rubble in Meulaboh after 2004 tsunami DM-SD-06-11957.JPEG
| image4 = 2004-tsunami balanced.jpg
| image5 = Tsunami Memoral Alappadu.jpg
}}
| caption = {{hlist|'''From top, left to right''': [[Banda Aceh]], Indonesia, after the tsunami • [[South Korea|Korean]] rescue workers recovering a body under debris • a man searching through rubble in [[Meulaboh]] • people running away from the tsunami • a tsunami memorial in [[Kerala]], India}}
| isc-event = 7453151
| anss-url = official20041226005853450_30
| local-date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2004|12|26}}<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|title=M 9.1 – 2004 Sumatra – Andaman Islands Earthquake|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20041226005853450_30/executive|author=National Earthquake Information Center|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=24 April 2023|date=26 December 2004|archive-date=26 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926105014/https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20041226005853450_30/executive|url-status=live}}</ref>
| timestamp = 2004-12-26 00:58:53
| local-time = {{Unbulleted list|07:28:53 [[UTC+06:30]]|07:58:53 [[UTC+07:00]]|08:58:53 [[UTC+08:00]]}}
| pushpin_map = Indian Ocean#Indonesia Sumatra#Earth
| depth = {{cvt|30|km}}<ref name="usgs"/>
| damage = US$15 billion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianoceantsunami.web.unc.edu/the-economical-impacts-and-aspects-of-the-2004-indian-ocean-tsunmai-on-indonesia/|title=Indian Ocean Tsunami – Economic Aspects|website=indianoceantsunami.web.unc.edu|access-date=4 January 2018|archive-date=18 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418132913/http://indianoceantsunami.web.unc.edu/the-economical-impacts-and-aspects-of-the-2004-indian-ocean-tsunmai-on-indonesia/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| location = {{Coord|3.316|N|95.854|E|type:event_scale:50000000|display=inline,title}}<ref name="usgs"/>
| type = [[Megathrust earthquake|Megathrust]]
| tsunami = {{plainlist|
* {{cvt|15|to|30|m|sigfig=1}};<ref>{{cite web|title=Astonishing Wave Heights Among the Findings of an International Tsunami Survey Team on Sumatra|url=https://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/03/|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=16 June 2016|archive-date=27 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827064707/http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/03/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Paris"/>
* max. {{cvt|51|m}}<ref name="geomorphologie.revues.org">{{cite journal|last1=Paris|first1=Raphaël|last2=Cachão|first2=Mário|last3=Fournier|first3=Jérôme|last4=Voldoire|first4=Olivier|title=Nannoliths abundance and distribution in tsunami deposits: example from the December 26, 2004 tsunami in Lhok Nga (north-west Sumatra, Indonesia)|journal=Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement|date=1 April 2010|volume=16|issue=1|pages=109–118|doi=10.4000/geomorphologie.7865|bibcode=2010GRPE...16..109P |url=http://journals.openedition.org/geomorphologie/7865|access-date=2 June 2020|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725055443/https://journals.openedition.org/geomorphologie/7865|url-status=live|issn=1266-5304|url-access=subscription}}</ref>}}
| intensity = {{MMI|IX}}
| magnitude = 9.2–9.3 {{M|w|link=y}}
| affected = [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|Indian Ocean coastline areas]]
| casualties = 227,898 fatalities<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last1=Telford|first1=John|url=https://cdn.sida.se/publications/files/sida61330en-joint-evaluation-of-the-international-response-to-the-indian-ocean-tsunami.pdf|title=Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami: Synthesis Report|last2=Cosgrave|first2=John|publisher=[[Tsunami Evaluation Coalition]]|year=2006|isbn=0-85003-807-3|location=London|pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php|title=Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths|publisher=United States Geological Survey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605122458/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php|archive-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>
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| duration = 10 minutes
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| citations =
| engvar = en-UK
}}
On 26 December 2004, at 07:58:53 local time ([[UTC+07:00|UTC+7]]), a {{M|w|link=y}} 9.2–9.3 earthquake struck with its [[epicenter]] off the west coast of [[Aceh]], in northern [[Sumatra]], Indonesia. The [[Submarine earthquake|undersea]] [[megathrust earthquake]], known in the scientific community as the '''Sumatra–Andaman earthquake''',<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Lay|first1=T.|last2=Kanamori|first2=H.|last3=Ammon|first3=C.|last4=Nettles|first4=M.|last5=Ward|first5=S.|last6=Aster|first6=R.|last7=Beck|first7=S.|last8=Bilek|first8=S.|last9=Brudzinski|first9=M.|last10=Butler|first10=R.|last11=DeShon|first11=H.|last12=Ekström|first12=G.|last13=Satake|first13=K.|last14=Sipkin|first14=S.|title=The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004|journal=Science|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1127–1133|doi=10.1126/science.1112250|pmid=15905392|bibcode=2005Sci...308.1127L|s2cid=43739943|url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/20879/2/Lay_SOM.pdf|access-date=20 March 2019|archive-date=22 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722221132/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/20879/2/Lay_SOM.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/sumatraEQ/|title=Tsunamis and Earthquakes: Tsunami Generation from the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake – USGS Western Coastal and Marine Geology|publisher=Walrus.wr.usgs.gov|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226114009/https://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/sumatraEQ/|url-status=live}}</ref> was caused by a rupture along the fault boundary between the [[Burma plate]] and the [[Indian plate]], and reached a maximum [[Modified Mercalli intensity scale|Mercalli intensity]] of IX in some areas.

The earthquake caused a massive [[tsunami]] with waves up to {{cvt|30|m|sigfig=1}} high, referred to by British and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] media as the '''Boxing Day tsunami''', after the [[Boxing Day]] holiday, or the '''Asian tsunami''',<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 December 2014|title=A decade after the 2004 Asian Tsunami: recalling the turning point for disaster management|url=https://www.who.int/southeastasia/news/opinion-editorials/detail/a-decade-after-the-2004-asian-tsunami-recalling-the-turning-point-for-disaster-management|access-date=18 May 2024|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> which devastated communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries, especially in Aceh in Indonesia, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[India]], and [[Khao Lak]] in [[Thailand]]. The direct result was severe disruption to living conditions and commerce in coastal provinces of these and other surrounding countries. It is the deadliest tsunami in history, the [[List of natural disasters by death toll#21st century|deadliest natural disaster of the 21st century]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goff |first1=James |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xr4cEAAAQBAJ&pg=189 |title=Tsunami: The World's Greatest Waves |last2=Dudley |first2=Walter C. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9780197546123 |location=New York |pages=189 |chapter=Boxing Day: The World’s Worst Disaster of the 21st Century |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197546123.001.0001}}</ref> and one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Satake|first=Kenji|date=13 November 2014|title=Advances in earthquake and tsunami sciences and disaster risk reduction since the 2004 Indian ocean tsunami|journal=Geoscience Letters|volume=1|issue=1|article-number=15|doi=10.1186/s40562-014-0015-7|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014GSL.....1...15S|issn=2196-4092}}</ref> It is also the worst natural disaster in the history of Indonesia, the [[Maldives]], Sri Lanka, and Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Athukorala|first=Prema-chandra|year=2012|title=Indian Ocean Tsunami: Disaster, Generosity and Recovery|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8381.2012.02083.x|journal=Asian Economic Journal|volume=26|issue=3|pages=211–231|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8381.2012.02083.x|issn=1351-3958|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The earthquake itself is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Asia, the strongest of the 21st century, and the [[Largest earthquakes by magnitude#Strongest earthquakes by magnitude|second- or third-most powerful globally]] since modern seismography began in 1900.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gross|first1=Richard S.|last2=Chao|first2=Benjamin F.|date=1 November 2006|title=The rotational and gravitational signature of the December 26, 2004 Sumatran earthquake|journal=Surveys in Geophysics|volume=27|issue=6|pages=615–632|doi=10.1007/s10712-006-9008-1|bibcode=2006SGeo...27..615G|issn=1573-0956}}</ref>{{efn|Estimates of this earthquake are on par or smaller than the 1964 Alaska earthquake ({{M|w}} 9.2–9.3).<ref name="alaska64">{{cite anss|M 9.2 – The 1964 Prince William Sound, Alaska Earthquake|1964|iscgem869809}}</ref> Depending on estimates, it could place both earthquakes just behind the 1960 Valdivia earthquake ({{M|ww}} 9.5–9.6)<ref name="chile1960">{{cite anss|M 9.5 – 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (Valdivia Earthquake)|1960|iscgem879136}}</ref> (i.e. both rank second largest) or one of them as the second or third largest (i.e. 1964 event ranks second followed by 2004 event and vice versa).<ref>{{cite news|title=What are the biggest historical earthquakes?|url=https://earthobservatory.sg/earth-science-education/earth-science-faqs/geology-and-tectonics/what-are-the-biggest-historical-earthquakes|access-date=21 June 2024|work=Earth Observatory of Singapore}}</ref>}} It had the longest fault rupture ever observed, between {{convert|1200|to|1300|km|mi|0}}, and had the longest duration of [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] ever observed, lasting at least ten minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104179|title=Analysis of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Reveals Longest Fault Rupture Ever|date=19 May 2005|publisher=National Science Foundation|access-date=15 December 2016|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812205404/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104179|url-status=live}}</ref> It caused the entire planet to vibrate by as much as {{cvt|10|mm|1}},<ref>{{cite web|last=Walton|first=Marsha|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html|title=Scientists: Sumatra quake longest ever recorded|publisher=CNN|date=20 May 2005|access-date=15 December 2016|archive-date=14 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214073430/http://edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and also [[remotely triggered earthquakes]] as far away as [[Alaska]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael|last2=Sanches|first2=John J.|last3=McNutt|first3=Stephen R.|s2cid=27869948|title=Periodically Triggered Seismicity at Mount Wrangell, Alaska, After the Sumatra Earthquake|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1144–1146|pmid=15905395|bibcode=2005Sci...308.1144W|doi=10.1126/science.1112462}}</ref> Its epicentre was located between [[Simeulue]] and mainland Sumatra.<ref name="Archived">{{cite journal|last1=Nalbant|first1=Suleyman S.|last2=Steacy|first2=Sandy|last3=Sieh|first3=Kerry|last4=Natawidjaja|first4=Danny|author4-link=Danny Hilman Natawidjaja|last5=McCloskey|first5=John|title=Seismology: Earthquake risk on the Sunda trench|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|date=9 June 2005|volume=435|issue=7043|pages=756–757|doi=10.1038/nature435756a|pmid=15944691|url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/pubs_docs/papers/P05b.pdf|access-date=16 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604092608/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/pubs_docs/papers/P05b.pdf|archive-date=4 June 2010|url-status=dead|bibcode=2005Natur.435..756N|hdl=10220/8668|s2cid=4321796}}</ref> The plight of the [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|affected people and countries]] prompted a worldwide [[Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|humanitarian response]], with donations totaling more than US$14 billion<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jayasuriya|first1=Sisira|last2=McCawley|first2=Peter|url=http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668|title=The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster|location=Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA|publisher=Edward Elgar|date=2010|isbn=978-1-84844-692-2|access-date=6 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722005138/http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668|archive-date=22 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> (equivalent to US$24 billion in 2025 currency).

==Earthquake==
{{2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami}}
[[File:Image=2004acehearthquake.jpg|thumb|left|[[USGS]] [[ShakeMap]] for the event]]
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a [[Moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 8.8. The [[United States Geological Survey]] has its official estimate of {{M|w}}9.1,<ref name="usgs-2022">{{cite web|title=Long-term ocean observing for international capacity development around tsunami early warning |url=https://www.usgs.gov/publications/long-term-ocean-observing-international-capacity-development-around-tsunami-early|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=18 October 2022|archive-date=18 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018073633/https://www.usgs.gov/publications/long-term-ocean-observing-international-capacity-development-around-tsunami-early|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20041226005853450_30/executive |access-date=2025-05-13 |website=earthquake.usgs.gov|title=M 9.1 - 2004 Sumatra - Andaman Islands Earthquake}}</ref> but most recent studies suggest that the earthquake was {{M|w}}9.2–9.3. [[Hiroo Kanamori]] of the [[California Institute of Technology]] estimates that {{M|w}}9.2 is the most representative estimate of the earthquake's size.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kanamori|first=Hiroo|year=2006|title=Seismological Aspects of the December 2004 Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1193/1.2201969|journal=Earthquake Spectra|volume=22|issue=3_suppl|pages=1–12|doi=10.1193/1.2201969|bibcode=2006EarSp..22....1K|issn=8755-2930|url-access=subscription}}</ref> More recent studies estimate the magnitude to be {{M|w}}9.3.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tsai|first1=Victor C.|last2=Nettles|first2=Meredith|last3=Ekström|first3=Göran|last4=Dziewonski|first4=Adam M.|year=2005|title=Multiple CMT source analysis of the 2004 Sumatra earthquake|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2005GL023813|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=32|issue=17|article-number=2005GL023813 |doi=10.1029/2005GL023813|bibcode=2005GeoRL..3217304T|issn=0094-8276}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hirata|first1=Kenji|last2=Satake|first2=Kenji|last3=Tanioka|first3=Yuichiro|last4=Kuragano|first4=Tsurane|last5=Hasegawa|first5=Yohei|last6=Hayashi|first6=Yutaka|last7=Hamada|first7=Nobuo|date=1 February 2006|title=The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami: Tsunami source model from satellite altimetry|journal=Earth, Planets and Space|volume=58|issue=2|pages=195–201|doi=10.1186/BF03353378|doi-access=free|bibcode=2006EP&S...58..195H|issn=1880-5981}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Menke|first1=William|last2=Abend|first2=Hannah|last3=Bach|first3=Dalia|last4=Newman|first4=Kori|last5=Levin|first5=Vadim|date=1 November 2006|title=Review of the source characteristics of the Great Sumatra–Andaman Islands earthquake of 2004|journal=Surveys in Geophysics|volume=27|issue=6|pages=603–613|doi=10.1007/s10712-006-9013-4|bibcode=2006SGeo...27..603M|issn=1573-0956|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stein|first1=Seth|last2=Okal|first2=Emile A.|date=1 January 2007|title=Ultralong Period Seismic Study of the December 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Implications for Regional Tectonics and the Subduction Process|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/97/1A/S279/146573/Ultralong-Period-Seismic-Study-of-the-December|journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America|volume=97|issue=1A|pages=S279–S295|doi=10.1785/0120050617|bibcode=2007BuSSA..97S.279S|issn=1943-3573|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A 2016 study estimated the magnitude to be {{M|w}}9.25,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bletery|first1=Quentin|last2=Sladen|first2=Anthony|last3=Jiang|first3=Junle|last4=Simons|first4=Mark|year=2016|title=A Bayesian source model for the 2004 great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2016JB012911|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|volume=121|issue=7|pages=5116–5135|doi=10.1002/2016JB012911|bibcode=2016JGRB..121.5116B|issn=2169-9313}}</ref> while a 2021 study revised its 2007 estimate of {{M|w}}9.1 to a new magnitude of {{M|w}}9.2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fujii|first1=Yushiro|last2=Satake|first2=Kenji|last3=Watada|first3=Shingo|last4=Ho|first4=Tung-Cheng|date=1 December 2021|title=Re-examination of Slip Distribution of the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman Earthquake (Mw 9.2) by the Inversion of Tsunami Data Using Green's Functions Corrected for Compressible Seawater Over the Elastic Earth|journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics|volume=178|issue=12|pages=4777–4796|doi=10.1007/s00024-021-02909-6|bibcode=2021PApGe.178.4777F |issn=1420-9136|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The [[hypocentre]] of the main earthquake was approximately {{cvt|160|km|-1}} off the western coast of northern Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean just north of [[Simeulue]] island at a depth of {{cvt|30|km}} below sea level (initially reported as {{cvt|10|km|disp=or}}). The northern section of the [[Sunda megathrust]] ruptured over a length of {{cvt|1300|km}}.<ref name="Archived"/> The earthquake (followed by the tsunami) was felt in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Løvholt|first1=F.|last2=Bungum|first2=H.|last3=Harbitz|first3=C.B.|last4=Glimsdal|first4=S.|last5=Lindholm|first5=C.D.|last6=Pedersen|first6=G.|display-authors=1|title=Earthquake related tsunami hazard along the western coast of Thailand|journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences|date=30 November 2006|volume=6|issue=6|pages=979–997|doi=10.5194/nhess-6-979-2006|hdl=11250/2426119|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00299386/file/nhess-6-979-2006.pdf|bibcode=2006NHESS...6..979L|doi-access=free|access-date=1 September 2019|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725132236/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00299386/file/nhess-6-979-2006.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Splay faults, or secondary "pop up faults", caused long, narrow parts of the seafloor to pop up in seconds. This rapidly increased the height and speed of the tsunami waves, destroying the nearby Indonesian town of [[Lhoknga]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sibuet|first1=J.|last2=Rangin|first2=C.|last3=Le Pichon|first3=X.|last4=Singh|first4=S.|last5=Cattaneo|first5=A.|last6=Graindorge|first6=D.|last7=Klingelhoefer|first7=F.|last8=Lin|first8=J.|last9=Malod|first9=J. |last10=Maury |first10=T.|last11=Schneider|first11=J.|last12=Sultan|first12=N.|last13=Umber|first13=M.|last14=Yamaguchi|first14=H.|display-authors=1|title=26th December 2004 great Sumatra–Andaman earthquake: Co-seismic and post-seismic motions in northern Sumatra|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=15 November 2007|volume=263|issue=1–2|pages=88–103|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.09.005|url=http://wwz.ifremer.fr/drogm/content/download/36024/293289/file/2007EPSLSibuet.pdf|access-date=16 May 2009|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5gsKIqvg4?url=http://wwz.ifremer.fr/drogm/content/download/36024/293289/file/2007EPSLSibuet.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2009|url-status=dead|bibcode=2007E&PSL.263...88S}}</ref>

Indonesia lies between the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]] along the northeastern islands adjacent to [[New Guinea]], and the [[Alpide belt]] that runs along the south and west from Sumatra, [[Java]], [[Bali]], [[Flores]] to [[Timor]]. The [[2002 Sumatra earthquake]] is believed to have been a [[foreshock]], preceding the main event by over two years.<ref name="Vallée">{{cite journal|last=Vallée|first=M.|year=2007|title=Rupture Properties of the Giant Sumatra Earthquake Imaged by Empirical Green's Function Analysis|journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America|publisher=[[Seismological Society of America]]|volume=97|issue=1A|pages=S103–S114|doi=10.1785/0120050616|url=http://igpphome.ucsd.edu/~shearer/Files/Sumatra_Papers/vallee_bssa07.pdf|bibcode=2007BuSSA..97S.103V|access-date=10 February 2016|archive-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010004431/http://igpphome.ucsd.edu/~shearer/Files/Sumatra_Papers/vallee_bssa07.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Historical comparisons ===
{{See also|List of megathrust earthquakes}}
Great earthquakes such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake are generally associated with [[Megathrust earthquake|megathrust]] events in [[subduction]] zones. Their [[seismic moment]]s can account for a significant fraction of the global seismic moment across century-scale periods. Of all the moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bird|first1=Peter|last2=Kreemer|first2=Corné|date=February 2015|title=Revised Tectonic Forecast of Global Shallow Seismicity Based on Version 2.1 of the Global Strain Rate Map|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/105/1/152-166/323426|journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America|volume=105|issue=1|pages=152–166|doi=10.1785/0120140129|bibcode=2015BuSSA.105..152B|issn=0037-1106|url-access=subscription}}</ref> This quake, together with the [[1964 Alaska earthquake|Great Alaskan earthquake]] (1964) and the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake|Great Chilean earthquake]] (1960), account for almost half of the total moment.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Callender|first=Rick|title=Cumulative Moment Mag|url=https://www.iris.edu/gallery3/general/posters/CenturyofEarthquakes/CumulativeMomentMag|access-date=20 November 2022|publisher=[[IRIS Consortium]]|archive-date=20 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120104338/https://www.iris.edu/gallery3/general/posters/CenturyofEarthquakes/CumulativeMomentMag|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Chile earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Alaska earthquake in [[Prince William Sound]] (magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off [[1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake|Kamchatka, Russia, in November 1952]] (magnitude 9.0) and [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|Tōhoku, Japan, in March 2011]] (magnitude 9.1). Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes and tsunamis was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas.<ref name=":1" />

Comparisons with earlier earthquakes are difficult, as earthquake strength was not measured systematically until the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How do you determine the magnitude for an earthquake that occurred prior to the creation of the magnitude scale?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-do-you-determine-magnitude-earthquake-occurred-prior-creation-magnitude-scale|access-date=10 December 2022|publisher=United States Geological Survey|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210120240/https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-do-you-determine-magnitude-earthquake-occurred-prior-creation-magnitude-scale|url-status=live}}</ref> However, historical earthquake strength can sometimes be estimated by examining historical descriptions of the damage caused, and the geological records of the areas where they occurred.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Palmer|first=Brian|date=14 January 2010|title=How do they measure earthquakes from 250 years ago?|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2010/01/how-do-they-measure-earthquakes-from-250-years-ago.html|access-date=10 December 2022|website=Slate|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210120243/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2010/01/how-do-they-measure-earthquakes-from-250-years-ago.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Some examples of significant historical megathrust earthquakes are the [[1868 Arica earthquake]] in Peru and the [[1700 Cascadia earthquake]] in western North America.

===Tectonic plates===
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}

[[File:Seisme Sumatra CADRE.jpg|thumb|left|Epicentre and associated aftershocks]]
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} of [[Fault (geology)|fault surface]] slipped (or ruptured) about {{cvt|15|m|-1}} along the [[subduction]] zone where the [[Indian plate]] slides under (or subducts) the overriding Burma plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about {{cvt|400|km|-1}} long and {{cvt|100|km|-1}} wide, {{cvt|30|km}} beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about {{cvt|2.8|km/s|mi/s km/h mph|sigfig=3}}, beginning off the coast of [[Aceh]] and proceeding north-westerly over about 100 seconds. After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the [[Andaman Islands|Andaman]] and [[Nicobar Islands]]. The northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about {{cvt|2.1|km/s|mi/s km/h mph}}, continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to [[Strike-slip fault|strike-slip]] (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions).

The Indian plate is part of the [[Indo-Australian plate]], which underlies the Indian Ocean and [[Bay of Bengal]], and is moving north-east at an average of {{cvt|60|mm/yr|in/yr}}. The India Plate meets the [[Burma plate]] (which is considered a portion of the great [[Eurasian plate]]) at the [[Sunda Trench]]. At this point, the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]] out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a [[volcanic arc]]. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian plate subducts the Eurasian plate has created the [[Sunda Arc]].

As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake resulted in a rise of the seafloor by several metres, displacing an estimated {{cvt|30|km3}} of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves radiated outwards along the entire {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} length of the rupture (acting as a [[line source]]). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the seafloor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated {{cvt|0.1|mm|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bilham|first1=Roger|title=A Flying Start, Then a Slow Slip|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1126–1127|doi=10.1126/science.1113363|pmid=15905391|bibcode=2005Sci...308.1126B|s2cid=30721065}}</ref>

===Aftershocks and other earthquakes===
{{See also|List of earthquakes in Indonesia|List of earthquakes in 2004}}
[[File:Neic slav fig72.gif|thumb|Initial earthquake and aftershocks measuring greater than 4.0 {{M|w}} from 26 December 2004 to 10 January 2005]]
Numerous [[aftershock]]s were reported off the [[Andaman Islands]], the [[Nicobar Islands]] and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.6 [[2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake]], which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of [[Nias]], is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicentre, and was most likely [[coulomb stress transfer|triggered by stress changes]] associated with the 2004 event.<ref name="USGS_2005">{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/poster/2005/20050328.php|title=Poster of the Northern Sumatra Earthquake of 28 March 2005 – Magnitude 8.7|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=22 July 2010|access-date=26 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514113830/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/poster/2005/20050328.php|archive-date=14 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> The earthquake produced its own aftershocks, some registering a magnitude of as high as 6.9.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M 6.9 – 89 km WSW of Singkil, Indonesia|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usp000dr4t/executive|access-date=26 December 2023|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref>

Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 7.2<ref>{{Cite web|title=M 7.2 – 284 km WNW of Sabang, Indonesia|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usp000dbg6/executive|access-date=26 December 2023|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref> continued to shake the region daily for three or four months.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4430255.stm|title=Sumatra shaken by new earthquake|publisher=BBC News|date=10 April 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=3 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103182113/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4430255.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior.

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a [[2004 Tasman Sea earthquake|magnitude 8.1 earthquake]] in the sub-antarctic [[Auckland Islands]], an uninhabited region west of New Zealand, and [[Macquarie Island]] to Australia's south. This is unusual since earthquakes of magnitude eight or more occur only about once per year on average.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faq/categories/9830/3355|title=USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: FAQ|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=10 December 2012|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120115751/http://www.usgs.gov/faq/categories/9830/3355|archive-date=20 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events.<ref name="USGS_2004_FAQ">{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2004/us2004slav/faq.php|title=Magnitude 9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake FAQ|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=29 December 2014|access-date=6 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213144822/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2004/us2004slav/faq.php|archive-date=13 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both [[Mount Leuser|Leuser Mountain]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Rinaldo|first=Aditya|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1317370,00050004.htm|title=Thousands flee as Indonesian volcano spews into life|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=12 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217062133/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1317370%2C00050004.htm|archive-date=17 February 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Mount Talang]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/a277ea8d5aef4b058ea7a582f7982b89/Volcano-erupts-on-same-Indonesian-island-as-earlier-quake|date=3 October 2018|author=Eileen Ng|title=Volcano erupts on same Indonesian island as earlier quake|work=AP NEWS |via=Associated Press|quote=Danny Hillman Natawidjaja, a geologist with Indonesia's Institute of Science...cited the example of the eruption of Mount Talang volcano in Indonesia's Sumatra province in April 2005, which geologists have said was connected to the devastating December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.|access-date=16 February 2020|archive-date=16 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216231638/https://apnews.com/a277ea8d5aef4b058ea7a582f7982b89/Volcano-erupts-on-same-Indonesian-island-as-earlier-quake|url-status=live}}</ref> volcanoes in Aceh along the same range of peaks, while the [[2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake]] sparked activity in [[Lake Toba]], a massive caldera in Sumatra.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=661767|title=Volcano on Indonesia's Sumatra Erupts|work=ABC News|location=United States|date=11 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050919103130/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=661767|archive-date=19 September 2005}}</ref>

===Energy released===
[[File:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.svg|thumb|right|Aftershocks of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]

The energy released on the Earth's surface (''M''<sub>e</sub>, the energy magnitude, which is the ''seismic potential for damage'') by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was estimated at 1.1{{x10^|17}} [[joules]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html|title=USGS Energy and Broadband Solution|publisher=National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404013939/http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html|archive-date=4 April 2010}}</ref>

The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to {{cvt|200|-|300|mm|0}}, equivalent to the effect of the [[tides|tidal forces]] caused by the Sun and Moon.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} The seismic waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet, as far away as the U.S. state of [[Oklahoma]], where vertical movements of {{cvt|3|mm}} were recorded.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} By February 2005, the earthquake's effects were still detectable as a {{cvt|20|um|mm in|sigfig=1}} complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth's surface, which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than four months after the earthquake.<ref name="Virtanen">{{cite thesis|type=Dissertation|publisher=[[University of Helsinki]]|last=Virtanen|first=Heikki|year=2006|title=Studies of earth dynamics with the superconducting gravimeter|url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/mat/fysik/vk/virtanen/studieso.pdf|access-date=21 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605043202/http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/mat/fysik/vk/virtanen/studieso.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:sumatra waveform large.jpg|thumb|left|Vertical-component ground motions recorded by the [[Global Seismographic Network]] and displayed by the [[IRIS Consortium]]]]
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge [[Rayleigh wave|Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves]] that exceeded {{cvt|10|mm|sigfig=1}} in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicentre in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude signal is that of the compressional [[P-wave|(P) wave]], which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the [[Antipodes|antipode]]; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200-minute mark. The aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances but is dwarfed by the [[mainshock]].

The shift of mass and the massive release of energy slightly altered the Earth's rotation. Weeks after the earthquake, theoretical models suggested the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 [[microseconds]], due to a decrease in the [[Oblate spheroid|oblateness]] of the Earth.<ref name="NASA">{{cite press release|last1=Cook-Anderson|first1=Gretchen|last2=Beasley|first2=Dolores|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05011_earthquake.html|title=NASA Details Earthquake Effects on the Earth|publisher=[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA)|date=10 January 2005|access-date=11 January 2005|archive-date=27 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127163105/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05011_earthquake.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to {{cvt|25|mm|0}} in the direction of 145° east [[longitude]],<ref>Schechner, Sam. "[http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2004/12/earthquakes_vs_the_earths_rotation.html Earthquakes vs. the Earth's Rotation]"; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143615/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2004/12/earthquakes_vs_the_earths_rotation.html |date=12 June 2018 }}. ''Slate''. 27 December 2004.</ref> or perhaps by up to {{cvt|50|or|60|mm}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-12/29/content_2389519.htm|title=Italian scientists say Asian quakes cause Earth's axis shifted|via=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|date=29 December 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705140634/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-12/29/content_2389519.htm|archive-date=5 July 2009}}</ref> Because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 microseconds per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural [[Chandler wobble]] of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to {{cvt|15|m|sigfig=1}}, eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.

There was {{cvt|10|m}} movement laterally and {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the [[Burma plate]] (the southern regions are on the [[Sunda plate]]), might have moved south-west by up to {{cvt|36|m|-1}}, but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about {{cvt|0.2|m|0}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=Quake moved Sumatra by only 20 centimeters: Danish scientists|date=31 January 2005|via=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] appear to have shifted south-west by around {{cvt|1.25|m|ftin}} and to have sunk by {{cvt|1|m|ftin}}.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bagla|first=Pallava|work=Science Now|title=After the Earth Moved|date=28 January 2005|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/after-earth-moved|access-date=16 December 2016|archive-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220132403/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2005/01/after-earth-moved|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Graph of largest earthquakes 1906-2005.png|thumb|upright=1|[[Seismic moment]] release of the largest earthquakes from 1906 to 2005]]
In February 2005, the [[Royal Navy]] vessel {{HMS|Scott|H131|6}} surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between {{cvt|1000|and|5000|m|fathom ft}}. The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a considerable impact on the topography of the seabed. {{convert|1500|m|ft|adj=mid|-high|sigfig=1}} thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some {{cvt|100|m}} high and {{cvt|2|km}} long. The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tonnes, as far as {{cvt|10|km|0}} across the seabed. An [[oceanic trench]] several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.<ref>{{cite news|last=Knight|first=Will|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6994|title=Asian tsunami seabed pictured with sonar|work=[[New Scientist]]|date=10 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050227163829/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6994|archive-date=27 February 2005}}</ref>

The [[TOPEX/Poseidon]] and [[Jason-1]] satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-013|title=NASA/French Satellite Data Reveal New Details of Tsunami|publisher=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]/[[NASA]]|date=11 January 2005|access-date=16 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305182017/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2005-013|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies in the order of {{cvt|500|mm}} were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/applications/geodesy-and-geophysics/tsunamis/index.html|title=TOPEX/Poseidon Satellite Data on 26 December 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean|work=Aviso|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624101155/http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/applications/geodesy-and-geophysics/tsunamis/index.html|archive-date=24 June 2011}}</ref> Unlike data from [[tide gauge]]s installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.

=== Assessment of potential earthquakes in the future ===

Before the 2004 quake there were three arguments against a large earthquake occurring in the Sumatra region. After the quake it was considered that earthquake hazard risk would need to be reassessed for regions previously thought to have low risk based on these criteria:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tectonics.caltech.edu/outreach/highlights/sumatra/rethink.html|title=Rethinking the Causes of Giant Earthquakes|website=www.tectonics.caltech.edu}}</ref>

#The subducting plate at the location of the 2004 quake is older and more dense. Before the 2004 earthquake it was thought that only the subduction of young and buoyant crust could produce giant earthquakes.
#Slow plate motion. Previously it was thought that the convergence rate had to be fast.
#Before the 2004 quake it was thought that giant earthquakes only occurred in regions without [[back-arc basin]]s.

==Tsunami==
[[File:2004IndianOceanTsunami.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|The [[Wave propagation|tsunami's propagation]] took 5 hours to reach Western Australia, 7 hours to reach the Arabian Peninsula, and did not reach the South African coast until nearly 11 hours after the earthquake]]
The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a [[teletsunami]] and is much more likely to be produced by the vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Lorca, Emilio|author2=Recabarren, Margot|title=Earthquakes and tsunamis: high school textbook|year=1997|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001115/111576eo.pdf|access-date=16 December 2016|archive-date=29 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929123116/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001115/111576eo.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The tsunami, like all the others, behaved differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a low, broad hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at the high speed of {{cvt|500|to|1000|km/h}}; in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of {{cvt|24|m|sigfig=1}} when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to {{cvt|30|m|sigfig=1}} in some areas when travelling inland.<ref name="Paris">{{cite journal|last=Paris|first=R.|author2=Lavigne F.|author3=Wassimer P.|author4=Sartohadi J.|year=2007|title=Coastal sedimentation associated with the December 26, 2004 tsunami in Lhoknga, west Banda Aceh (Sumatra, Indonesia)|journal=Marine Geology|publisher=Elsevier|volume=238|issue=1–4|pages=93–106|doi=10.1016/j.margeo.2006.12.009|bibcode=2007MGeol.238...93P}}</ref> Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: the maximum height was at {{cvt|600|mm|ft|sigfig=1}} two hours after the earthquake, the first such observations ever made.<ref>{{cite news|last=Leslie|first=John|url=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2005/s2365.htm|title=NOAA Scientists able to Measure Tsunami Height from Space|work=NOAA Magazine|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|date=10 January 2005|access-date=16 December 2016|archive-date=3 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603072630/http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2005/s2365.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=McKee|first=Maggie|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6854|title=Radar satellites capture tsunami wave height|work=[[New Scientist]]|date=6 January 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924134642/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6854|archive-date=24 September 2008}}</ref>

According to [[Tad Murty]], vice-president of the Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about {{convert|5|MtonTNT|lk=on}}, which is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II (including the two atomic bombs) but still a couple of [[order of magnitude|orders of magnitude]] less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places, the waves reached as far as {{cvt|2|km}} inland.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Pearce|first1=Fred|last2=Holmes|first2=Bob|url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524825.100|title=Tsunami: The impact will last for decades|work=New Scientist|date=15 January 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417042254/http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524825.100|archive-date=17 April 2008}}</ref>

Because the {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north–south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east–west direction. [[Bangladesh]], which lies at the northern end of the [[Bay of Bengal]], had few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicentre. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.

[[File:Tsunami size scale 26Dec2004.png|thumb|upright=.7|Average height of the waves]]
Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes [[diffraction|diffract]] around such landmasses. Thus, the Indian state of [[Kerala]] was hit by the tsunami despite being on the country's western coast, and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.

Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tsunami time travel map|url=http://tsun.sscc.ru/tsulab/20041226trt.htm|publisher=Tsunami Laboratory, Novosibirsk, Russia|access-date=20 July 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403182951/http://tsun.sscc.ru/tsulab/20041226trt.htm|archive-date=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://staff.aist.go.jp/kenji.satake/Sumatra-E.html|title=Time travel map: Active Fault Research Center: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan|publisher=Staff.aist.go.jp|access-date=24 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717104438/http://staff.aist.go.jp/kenji.satake/Sumatra-E.html|archive-date=17 July 2012}}</ref> The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow [[Andaman Sea]] off its western coast.

The tsunami was noticed as far as [[Struisbaai]] in South Africa, about {{cvt|8500|km}} away, where a {{convert|1.5|m|ft|0|adj=mid|-high}} tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach Struisbaai at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached Antarctica, where tidal gauges at Japan's [[Showa Base]] recorded oscillations of up to a metre ({{convert|1|m|ftin|disp=output only}}), with disturbances lasting a couple of days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KANKYO/KAIYO/KOUHOU/iotunami/iotunami_eng.html|title=Indian Ocean Tsunami" at Syowa Station, Antarctica|publisher=Hydrographic and Oceanographic Dept. Japan Coast Guard|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-date=21 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621060542/http://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KANKYO/KAIYO/KOUHOU/iotunami/iotunami_eng.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around {{cvt|200|to|400|mm}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/IndianOSite/IndianO12-26-04.htm|title=Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December 2004|publisher=West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (USGS)|date=31 December 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204070520/http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/IndianOSite/IndianO12-26-04.htm|archive-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> At [[Manzanillo, Colima|Manzanillo]], Mexico, a tsunami with a wave height of {{Convert|89.3|cm|ft in}} was measured.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NCEI Hazard Runup Information |url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/runup-more-info/6847 |access-date=9 April 2025 |website=NOAA}}</ref> As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in [[Vancouver]], Canada, which puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the [[mid-ocean ridge]]s which run along the margins of the continental plates.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carey|first=Bjorn|url=http://www.livescience.com/9314-tsunami-waves-channeled-globe-2004-disaster.html|title=Tsunami Waves Channeled Around the Globe in 2004 Disaster|work=LiveScience|date=25 August 2005|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220140730/http://www.livescience.com/9314-tsunami-waves-channeled-globe-2004-disaster.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Early signs and warnings===
[[File:KataNoiReceding.jpg|thumb|Maximum recession of tsunami waters at [[Kata Noi Beach]] at 10:25 a.m., prior to the third—and strongest—tsunami wave]]
Despite a delay of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken by surprise. There were no [[tsunami warning system]]s in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general population living around the ocean.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Australian Geographic]]|title=The 2004 Boxing Day tsunami|date=18 December 2014|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/12/on-this-day-in-history-boxing-day-tsunami|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=23 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223020344/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/12/on-this-day-in-history-boxing-day-tsunami|url-status=live}}</ref> Tsunami detection is difficult because while a tsunami is in deep water, it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it.

Tsunamis are more frequent in the Pacific Ocean than in other oceans because of earthquakes in the "[[Ring of Fire]]". Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where the earthquake struck), no warning system existed in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa]]. Not every earthquake produces large tsunamis: on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami.

The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is felt only weakly or not at all. In the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea sometimes recedes temporarily from the coast, which was observed on the eastern earthquake rupture zone such as the coastlines of Aceh, [[Phuket]] island and [[Khao Lak]] in Thailand, [[Penang]] island in Malaysia, and the [[Andaman and Nicobar islands]]. This rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as {{cvt|2.5|km}} of exposed beach, with fatal results.<ref>{{cite web|last=Block|first=Melissa|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4246573|title=Sri Lankans Seek Lost Relatives After Tsunami|work=[[All Things Considered]]|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=27 December 2004|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=23 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123083140/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4246573|url-status=live}}</ref> However, not all tsunamis cause this "disappearing sea" effect. In some cases, there are no warning signs at all: the sea will suddenly swell without retreating, surprising many people and giving them little time to flee.

[[File:Tsunami wavefield for the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake.webm|thumb|left|Tsunami wave field in the [[Bay of Bengal]] an hour after the earthquake]]

One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of [[Simeulue]], close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an [[1907 Sumatra earthquake|earthquake and tsunami in 1907]], and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami struck. These tales and oral folklore from previous generations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants.<ref>Campbell, Matthew; Loveard, Keith; et al. "[https://www.thetimes.com/uk/environment/article/focus-natures-timebomb-cbwdxwsd5xl Tsunami disaster: Focus: Nature's timebomb]"; [https://www.thetimes.com/uk/environment/article/focus-natures-timebomb-cbwdxwsd5xl]. ''Times Online''. 2 January 2005.</ref> On Maikhao Beach in north [[Phuket City]], Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named [[Tilly Smith]] had studied tsunamis in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl-10-used-geography-lesson-to-save-lives.html|title=Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=1 January 2005|location=London|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125091359/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl-10-used-geography-lesson-to-save-lives.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[John Chroston]], a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground.

[[Anthropologist]]s had initially expected the [[Andamanese people|aboriginal population]] of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated [[Onge people|Onge tribe]] could have been wiped out.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4135187.stm|title=Andaman aborigines' fate unclear|author=Subir Bhaumik|date=30 December 2004|publisher=BBC News|access-date=13 February 2010|archive-date=12 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212202153/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4135187.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties, however.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=Manu|last2=Sharma|first2=Anshu|year=2006|title=Compounded loss: the post tsunami recovery experience of Indian island communities|journal=Disaster Prevention and Management|volume=15|issue=1|pages=67–78|doi=10.1108/09653560610654248|bibcode=2006DisPM..15...67G}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Math|first1=Suresh Bada|last2=Girimaji‌|first2=Satish Chandra|last3=Benegal|year=2006|first3=V|last4=Uday Kumar|first4=GS|last5=Hamza|first5=A|last6=Nagaraja|first6=D|title=Tsunami: Psychosocial aspects of Andaman and Nicobar islands. Assessments and intervention in the early phase|journal=[[International Review of Psychiatry]]|volume=18|pmid=16753660|issue=3|pages=233–239|doi=10.1080/09540260600656001|s2cid=10258905}}</ref> Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water". Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4181855.stm|publisher=BBC News|first=Subir|last=Bhaumik|title=Tsunami folklore 'saved islanders'|date=20 January 2005|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=30 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930002820/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4181855.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Indonesia===

====Aceh====
[[File:Street in downtown Banda Aceh after 2004 tsunami DD-SD-06-07372.JPEG|thumbnail|Tsunami inundation height can be seen on a house in Banda Aceh]]

The tsunami devastated the coastline of [[Aceh]] province, about 20 minutes after the earthquake. [[Banda Aceh]], the closest major city, suffered severe casualties. The sea receded and exposed the seabed, prompting locals to collect stranded fish and explore the area. Local eyewitnesses described three large waves, with the first wave rising gently to the foundation of the buildings, followed minutes later by a sudden withdrawal of the sea near the port of [[Ulèë Lheuë]]. This was succeeded by the appearance of two large black-coloured steep waves which then travelled inland into the capital city as a large turbulent bore. Eyewitnesses described the tsunami as a "black giant", "mountain" and a "wall of water". Video footage revealed torrents of black water, surging by windows of a two-story residential area situated about {{cvt|3.2|km}} inland. Additionally, amateur footage recorded in the middle of the city captured an approaching black surge flowing down the city streets, full of debris, inundating them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eeri.org/lfe/clearinghouse/sumatra_tsunami/reports/EERI_report_indonesia_jcb_2-11-05.pdf|title=Field Survey northern Sumatra and Banda Aceh, Indonesia and after the Tsunami and Earthquake of 26 December 2004|last=Borrero|first=Jose C.|place=Los Angeles|publisher=Department of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California|date=9 February 2005|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010004418/https://www.eeri.org/lfe/clearinghouse/sumatra_tsunami/reports/EERI_report_indonesia_jcb_2-11-05.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:PLTD Apong Ie Beuna.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|left|''[[Apung 1]]'', a 2,600-ton vessel, was flung some {{cvt|2|km}} to {{cvt|3|km}} inland. In the years following the disaster, it became a local tourist attraction and has remained where it came to rest.]]

The level of destruction was extreme on the northwestern areas of the city, immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds, and directly facing the Indian Ocean. The tsunami height was reduced from {{cvt|12|m}} at Ulèë Lheuë to {{cvt|6|m}} a further {{cvt|8|km}} to the north-east. The inundation was observed to extend {{cvt|3|-|4|km|1}} inland throughout the city. Within {{cvt|2|-|3|km}} of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami.<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|title=Chapter 2 Earthquake, Tsunami and Damage in Banda Aceh and Northern Sumatra|work=tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215154931/http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Borreroetal2006">{{cite journal|last1=Borrero|first1=Jose C.|last2=Synolakis|first2=Costas E.|last3=Fritz|first3=Hermann|title=Northern Sumatra Field Survey after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|publisher=Earthquake Engineering Research Institute|date=June 2006|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=93–104|doi=10.1193/1.2206793|bibcode=2006EarSp..22...93B|s2cid=109582188|url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927005937/http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river, dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth at the city was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. In the seaside section of Ulèë Lheuë, the flow depths were over {{cvt|9|m}}. Footage showed evidence of back-flowing of the [[Aceh River]], carrying debris and people from destroyed villages at the coast and transporting them up to {{cvt|40|km}} inland.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borrero|first=Jose C.|date=10 June 2005|title=Field Data and Satellite Imagery of Tsunami Effects in Banda Aceh|journal=Science|volume=308|issue=5728|pages=1596|doi=10.1126/science.1110957|issn=0036-8075|pmid=15947180|s2cid=9702107}}</ref>

A group of small islands: Weh, Breueh, Nasi, [[Teunom]], [[Bunta]], [[Lumpat]], and [[Batee]] lie just north of the capital city. The tsunami reached a run-up of {{cvt|10|-|20|m}} on the western shorelines of [[Breueh Island]] and [[Nasi Island]]. Coastal villages were destroyed by the waves. On [[Weh Island]], strong surges were experienced in the port of [[Sabang, Indonesia|Sabang]], yet there was little damage with reported runup values of {{cvt|3|-|5|m}}, most likely due to the island being sheltered from the direct attack by the islands to the south-west.<ref name="Borreroetal2006"/>

[[File:Tsunami 2004 aftermath. Aceh, Indonesia, 2005. Photo- AusAID (10730623535).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Overturned cement carrier in Lhoknga]]

[[Lhoknga]] is a small coastal community about {{cvt|13|km}} south-west of Banda Aceh, located on a flat coastal plain in between two [[rainforest]]-covered hills, overlooking a large [[bay]] and famous for its large swathe of white sandy beach and surfing activities. The locals reported 10 to 12 waves, with the second and third being the highest and most destructive. Interviews with the locals revealed that the sea temporarily receded and exposed [[coral reefs]]. In the distant horizon, gigantic black waves about {{cvt|30|m}} high made explosion-like sounds as they broke and approached the shore. The first wave came rapidly landward from the south-west as a turbulent bore about {{cvt|0.5|-|2.5|m|ft}} high. The second and third waves were {{cvt|15|-|30|m}} high at the coast and appeared like gigantic surfing waves but "taller than the coconut trees and was like a mountain".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPWlFogY7Kw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911033843/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPWlFogY7Kw|archive-date=11 September 2016|title=Seconds From Disaster S03E13 Asian Tsunami|last=Kaget Mera|date=25 January 2016|format=Video|via=YouTube}}</ref> The second wave was the largest; it came from the west-southwest within five minutes of the first wave. The tsunami stranded cargo ships, barges and destroyed a cement mining facility near the [[Lampuuk]] coast, where it reached the fourth level of the building.<ref name="geomorphologie.revues.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aEvk1oFGIO8|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/aEvk1oFGIO8|archive-date=28 October 2021|title=Great Tsunami 12-26-04 at Banda Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia 3 of 3|author=((red17khmer))|date=30 November 2008|format=Video|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiD7pJl0PnA|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/hiD7pJl0PnA|archive-date=28 October 2021|title=Boxing Day Tsunami Banda Aceh 4 of 4|last=geoffmackley|date=19 November 2009|format=Video|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[File:Aceh_2004_tsunami_standing_mosque_USGS.jpg|thumb|[[Baiturrahim Mosque]] survived the tsunami in [[Ulèë Lheuë]], [[Banda Aceh]]]]

[[Meulaboh]], a remote coastal city, was among the hardest hit by the tsunami. The waves arrived after the sea receded about {{cvt|500|m}}, followed by an advancing small tsunami. The second and third destructive waves arrived later, which exceeded the height of the coconut trees. The inundation distance is about {{cvt|5|km}}. Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included [[Leupung]], [[Lhokruet]], [[Lamno]], Patek, [[Calang]], and [[Teunom]]. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coast were [[Pidie Regency]], [[Samalanga]], [[Panteraja]], and [[Lhokseumawe]]. The high fatality rate in the area was mainly due to lack of preparation of the community towards a tsunami and limited knowledge and education among the population regarding such a natural phenomenon. Helicopter surveys revealed entire settlements virtually destroyed, with destruction extending miles inland. Only a few mosques remained standing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.vassar.edu/brmcadoo/yalciner-et-al-2005.pdf|last1=Yalciner|first1=A.C.|last2=Perincek|first2=D.|last3=Ersoy|first3=S.|last4=Presateya|first4=G.|last5=Hidayat|first5=R.|last6=McAdoo|first6=B.|year=2005|title=Report on December 26, 2004, Indian Ocean Tsunami, Field Survey on Jan 21–31 at North of Sumatra|publisher=ITST of UNESCO IOC|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010004216/http://faculty.vassar.edu/brmcadoo/yalciner-et-al-2005.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The greatest run-up height of the tsunami was measured at a hill between Lhoknga and [[Leupung]], on the western coast of the northern tip of Sumatra, near Banda Aceh, and reached {{cvt|51|m}}.<ref name="geomorphologie.revues.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sos.noaa.gov/Datasets/dataset.php?id=556|title=Tsunami Wave Run-ups: Indian Ocean – 2004|work=Science on a Sphere|date=31 March 2015|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230065143/http://sos.noaa.gov/Datasets/dataset.php?id=556|url-status=live}}</ref>

The tsunami heights in Sumatra:<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp"/>
* {{cvt|15|-|30|m}} on the west coast of Aceh
* {{cvt|6|-|12|m}} on the Banda Aceh coast
* {{cvt|6|m}} on the [[Krueng Raya]] coast
* {{cvt|5|m}} on the [[Sigli]] coast
* {{cvt|3|-|6|m}} on the north coast of [[Weh Island]] directly facing the tsunami source
* {{cvt|3|m}} on the opposite side of the coast of Weh Island facing the tsunami

===Sri Lanka===
[[File:Tsunami 26-12-2004 - Kallady, Batticaloa.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Fishing boat stranded in [[Batticaloa]]]]
The island country of Sri Lanka, located about {{cvt|1700|km}} from Sumatra, was ravaged by the tsunami around two hours after the earthquake.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite report|first1=Yoshiaki|last1=Kawata|display-authors=etal|title=Comprehensive analysis of the damage and its impact on coastal zones by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami disaster|chapter=Chapter 3 Field Survey Report on the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami along the Southwestern Coast of Sri Lanka|publisher=Disaster Prev. Res. Inst.|place=Kyoto, Japan|date=2005|url=http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C3.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060420195425/http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C3.pdf|archive-date=2006-04-20}}</ref> The tsunami first struck the eastern coastline and subsequently refracted around the southern point of Sri Lanka ([[Dondra Head]]). The refracted tsunami waves then inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy was reflected from impact with the Maldives.<ref name="nzsee.org.nz">{{cite journal|last1=Goff|first1=James|title=Survey of the December 26th 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Sri Lanka|journal=Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering|date=December 2005|volume=38|issue=4|pages=235–244|doi=10.5459/bnzsee.38.4.235-244|url=http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf|doi-access=free|bibcode=2005BNZSE..38..235G |access-date=3 April 2016|archive-date=27 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127111126/http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Civilian casualties here were second only to those in Indonesia, with approximately 35,000 killed. The eastern shores of the country were the hardest hit since it faced the epicentre of the earthquake, while the southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists and fishing.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|title=Tsunami Disaster in Sri Lanka|last=Helgeson|first=T.J.|work=Waves of Devastation|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire|date=Spring 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617101155/http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> The [[Environmental degradation|degradation of the natural environment]] in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. Approximately 90,000 buildings and many wooden houses were destroyed.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

The tsunami arrived on the island as a small brown-orange-coloured flood. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed for as much as {{cvt|1|km}} in places, which was followed by massive second and third waves. Amateur video recorded at the city of [[Galle]] showed a large deluge flooding the city, carrying debris and sweeping away people while in the coastal resort town of [[Beruwala]], the tsunami appeared as a huge brown-orange-coloured bore which reached the first level of a hotel, causing destruction and taking people unaware. Other videos recorded showed that the tsunami appeared like a flood raging inland. The construction of seawalls and breakwaters reduced the power of waves at some locations.

The largest run-up measured was at {{cvt|12.5|m}} with inundation distance of {{cvt|390|-|1500|m}} in [[Yala National Park|Yala]].<ref name="earthquakespectra.org">{{cite journal|title=Sri Lanka Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|first1=James|last1=Goff|first2=Philip L-F.|last2=Liu|first3=Bretwood|last3=Higman|first4=Robert|last4=Morton|first5=Bruce E.|last5=Jaffe|first6=Harindra|last6=Fernando|first7=Patrick|last7=Lynett|first8=Hermann|last8=Fritz|first9=Costas|last9=Synolakis|first10=Starin|last10=Fernando|display-authors=1|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=155–172|doi=10.1193/1.2205897|year=2006|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..155G|s2cid=220297852}}</ref> In [[Hambantota]], run-ups measured {{cvt|11|m}} with the greatest inundation distance of {{cvt|2|km}}. Run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at {{cvt|2.4|-|4.11|m}}.<ref name="earthquakespectra.org"/><ref name="nzsee.org.nz"/> Waves measured on the east coast ranged from {{cvt|4.5|-|9|m}} at [[Pottuvill]] to [[Batticaloa]] at {{cvt|2.6|-|5|m}} in the north-east around [[Trincomalee]] and {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} in the west coast from [[Moratuwa]] to [[Ambalangoda]].

Sri Lanka tsunami height survey:<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="faculty.vassar.edu"/>
* {{cvt|9|m}} at [[Koggala]]
* {{cvt|6|m}} at Galle port
* {{cvt|4.8|m}} around the Galle coast
* {{cvt|8.7|m}} at [[Nonagama]]
* {{cvt|4.9|m}} at [[Weligama]]
* {{cvt|4|m}} at [[Dodanduwa]]
* {{cvt|4.7|m}} at Ambalangoda
* {{cvt|4.7|m}} at [[Hikkaduwa]] Fishery Harbour
* {{cvt|10|m}} at [[Kahawa]]
* {{cvt|4.8|m}} at North Beach of [[Beruwala]]
* {{cvt|6|m}} at [[Paiyagala]]

A regular passenger train operating between [[Maradana]] and [[Matara, Sri Lanka|Matara]] with over 1,750 passengers was [[2004 Sri Lanka tsunami-rail disaster|derailed and subsequently overturned by the tsunami]], claiming at least 1,000 lives in the largest single rail disaster death toll in history.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7795709|title=Observations by the International Tsunami Survey Team in Sri Lanka|journal=Science|first=P. L.-F.|last=Liu|date=1 July 2005|volume=308|issue=5728|pages=1595|doi=10.1126/science.1110730|pmid=15947179|bibcode=2005Sci...308.1595L |s2cid=11312069}}</ref> Estimates based on the state of the shoreline and a high-water mark on a nearby building place the tsunami {{cvt|7.5|-|9|m}} above sea level and {{cvt|2|-|3|m}} higher than the top of the train.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Thailand===
The tsunami travelled eastward through the [[Andaman Sea]] and hit the south-western coasts of [[Thailand]], about 2 hours after the earthquake. Located about {{cvt|500|km}} from the epicentre, at the time, the region was popular with tourists because of Christmas. Many of these tourists were caught off-guard by the tsunami, as they had no prior warning. The tsunami hit during [[high tide]]. Major locations damaged included the western shores of [[Phuket]] island, the resort town of [[Khao Lak]] in Phang Nga Province, the coastal provinces of [[Krabi Province|Krabi]], [[Satun Province|Satun]], [[Ranong Province|Ranong]] and [[Trang Province|Trang]] and small offshore islands like Ko Racha Yai, the [[Phi Phi]] islands, the [[Surin Islands]] and the [[Similan Islands|Similan archipelago]]. Approximately 8,000 people were killed.

Thailand experienced the second largest tsunami run-up. The tsunami heights recorded:<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="marine.tmd.go.th">{{cite journal|url=http://www.marine.tmd.go.th/Presentation/Alexandria/The%202004%20Indian%20tsunami%20in%20Thailand%20Surveyed%20runup%20heights%20and%20tide%20gauge%20records.pdf|title=The 2004 Indian tsunami in Thailand: Surveyed runup heights and tide gauge records|first1=Yoshinobu|last1=Tsuji|first2=Yuichi|last2=Namegaya|first3=Hiroyuki|last3=Matsumoto|first4=Sin-Iti|last4=Iwasaki|first5=Wattana|last5=Kanbua|first6=Mongkonkorn|last6=Sriwichai|first7=Vorawit|last7=Meesuk|display-authors=1|journal=Earth Planets Space|volume=58|issue=2|pages=223–232|year=2006|doi=10.1186/BF03353382|bibcode=2006EP&S...58..223T|s2cid=23896058|doi-access=free|access-date=3 August 2016|archive-date=21 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921045321/http://www.marine.tmd.go.th/Presentation/Alexandria/The%202004%20Indian%20tsunami%20in%20Thailand%20Surveyed%20runup%20heights%20and%20tide%20gauge%20records.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Khao Lak Police Boat 813.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Thai Navy]] boat stranded almost {{cvt|2|km}} inland]]
* {{cvt|6|-|10|m}} in Khao Lak
* {{cvt|3|-|6|m}} along the west coast of Phuket island
* {{cvt|3|m}} along the south coast of Phuket island
* {{cvt|2|m}} along the east coast of Phuket island
* {{cvt|4|-|6|m}} on the Phi Phi Islands
* {{cvt|19.6|m}} at Ban Thung Dap
* {{cvt|5|m}} at Ramson
* {{cvt|6.8|m}} at Ban Thale Nok
* {{cvt|5|m}} at Hat Praphat (Ranong Coastal Resources Research Station)
* {{cvt|6.3|m}} at [[Thai Mueang District]]
* {{cvt|6.8|m}} at Rai Dan

The province of Phang Nga was the most affected area in [[Thailand]]. The quiet resort town of [[Khao Lak]] is located on a stretch of golden sandy beach, famed for its hotels overlooking the [[Andaman Sea]] and hilly [[rainforests]]. A video, taken by a local restaurant manager from a hill adjacent to the beach, showed that the tsunami's arrival was preceded by a sudden retreat of the sea exposing the seafloor. Many tourists and locals can be seen trying to gather fish. Moments later, the tsunami arrives as a wall of foaming water that slams into the coast, washing away numerous people who had no time to escape. Another amateur video, captured by a German family at beach level, showed the tsunami appearing as a white horizontal line in the distant horizon, gradually becoming bigger (bore-like), engulfing a jet skier and lifting two police boats.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yamazaki|first1=Fumio|last2=Matsuoka|first2=Masashi|last3=Warnitchai|first3=Pennung|last4=Polngam|first4=Supapis|last5=Ghosh|first5=Shubharoop|display-authors=1|title=Tsunami Reconnaissance Survey in Thailand Using Satellite Images and GPS|journal=Asian Journal of Geoinformatics|publisher=[[Chiba University]]|citeseerx=10.1.1.564.5976}}</ref> A maximum inundation of approximately {{cvt|2|km|abbr=out}} was measured, the inundated depths were {{cvt|4|-|7|m}} and there was evidence that the tsunami reached the third floor of a resort hotel. The tsunami in Khao Lak was bigger due to offshore coral reefs and shallow seafloor which caused the tsunami to pile-up. This was similar to eyewitness accounts of the tsunami at [[Banda Aceh]].

[[Khao Lak]] also experienced the largest tsunami run-up height outside of [[Sumatra]].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C4.pdf|title=Chapter 4: Field Survey and Numerical Simulation on the 2004 Off-Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami in Thailand|publisher=[[Tohoku University]]|access-date=10 October 2015|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215154938/http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C4.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2018}} The highest-recorded tsunami run-up was measured {{cvt|19.6|m}} at Ban Thung Dap, on the south-west tip of [[Ko Phra Thong]] Island and the second-highest at {{cvt|15.8|m}} at Ban Nam Kim.<ref name="marine.tmd.go.th"/> Moreover, the largest death toll occurred at Khao Lak, with about 5,000 people killed.

In addition, the tsunami inflicted damage to the popular resort town of [[Ao Nang]] in Krabi Province. Video footage showed that the tsunami appeared as multiple white surfs which violently lifted up yachts and boats, eventually crashing onto beaches. Footage captured at [[Ko Lanta Yai|Koh Lanta]] showed a wall of water swamping the beach, while another video taken at another location showed a large [[surfing]] wave-like tsunami approaching the shore, lifting up a yacht and flooding the beach. At Koh Sriboya, the tsunami advanced inland as a turbulent medium bore, while at Koh Phayam, [[Ranong Province]], the tsunami appeared as a wall of water.

At [[Phuket Province]], the island province's western beaches were struck by the tsunami. At [[Patong Beach]], a popular tourist destination, the tsunami first arrived as a small flood, which swept away cars and surprised people. About 10 minutes later, the sea receded for a while before the tsunami arrived again as a large wall of water looming over the skyline and flooding the coast. Another video from Kamala Beach showed the tsunami flooding the ground floor of a restaurant sweeping away an elderly couple. On [[Karon Beach]], Kamala Beach and [[Kata Beach]], the tsunami came in like a surging flood inland carrying people and cars. On some locations, a coastal road, which was built higher than the shore, protected a hotel which was behind it. On the east coast of Phuket Island, the tsunami height was about 2 m. In one river mouth, many boats were damaged. The tsunami moved counter-clockwise around Phuket Island, as was the case at [[Okushiri Island]] in the [[1993 Okushiri earthquake|1993 Hokkaido earthquake]]. According to interviews, the second wave was the largest.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The tsunami heights were {{cvt|5|-|6|m}} and the inundated depth was about {{cvt|2|m|ft}}. The tsunami surprised many tourists at Koh Racha Yai, where it flooded the resorts. About 250 people perished directly in the tsunami.

The [[Phi Phi Islands]] are a group of small islands that were affected by the tsunami. The north bay of Phi Phi Don Island opens to the north-west in the direction of the tsunami. The measured tsunami height on this beach was {{cvt|5.8|m}}. According to eyewitness accounts, the tsunami came from the north and south. The ground level was about 2 m above sea level, where there were many cottages and hotels. The south bay opens to the south-east and faces in the opposite direction from the tsunami. Furthermore, Phi Phi Le Island shields the port of Phi Phi Don Island. The measured tsunami height was {{cvt|4.6|m}} in the port.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Amateur camcorder footage taken by Israeli tourists showed the tsunami advancing inland suddenly as a small flood, gradually becoming more powerful and engulfing the whole beach and resort, with the tsunami carrying a yacht out to sea.

Moreover, the tsunami was detected by scuba divers around offshore islands like the [[Similan Islands]] and the [[Surin Islands]]. The divers reported being caught in a violent, swirling current suddenly while underwater. Local camcorder footage showed the tsunami surging inland and flooding camping equipment at the Similan Islands while the tsunami caught tourists unaware at the Surin Islands, and dragging them out towards the sea.

===India===
[[File:Tree stumps and debris remain on Karaikal beach after the 2004 tsunami.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Tree stumps and debris remain on Karaikal beach several years after the 2004 tsunami]]
The tsunami reached the states of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Tamil Nadu]] along the southeastern coastline of the Indian mainland about two hours after the earthquake. At the same time, it arrived in the state of [[Kerala]], on the southwestern coast. There were two to five tsunamis that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.<ref name="mapsofindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|title=Tsunami Affected Areas in India 2004|publisher=Maps of India|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=7 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207184649/http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/%3E|title=Zoltán Grossman – Member of the Faculty in Geography & Native Studies|publisher=The Evergreen State College|location=Olympia, Washington|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230015452/https://sites.evergreen.edu/zoltan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com.my">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation|first=M.K.|last=Jha|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9789048124985|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=3 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203153914/https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="iitk.ac.in">{{cite journal|url=http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf|title=Effects of the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the Indian Mainland|first1=Alpa|last1=Sheth|first2=Snigdha|last2=Sanyal|first3=Arvind|last3=Jaiswal|first4=Prathibha|last4=Gandhi|display-authors=1|journal=Earthquake Spectra|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=S435–S473|date=June 2006|doi=10.1193/1.2208562|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..435S|s2cid=110385551|access-date=4 August 2016|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170856/http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs includes:<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/>
* {{cvt|3.4|m}} at Kerala, inundation distance of {{cvt|0.5|-|1.5|km}} with {{cvt|250|km}} of coastline affected
* {{cvt|4.5|m}} at the southern coastline of Tamil Nadu, inundation distance of {{cvt|0.2|-|2|km}} with {{cvt|100|km}} of coastline affected
* {{cvt|5|m}} at the eastern coastline of Tamil Nadu facing tsunami source, inundation distance of {{cvt|0.4|-|1.5|km}} with {{cvt|800|km}} of coastline affected
* {{cvt|4|m}} at [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]], inundation distance of {{cvt|0.2|-|2|km}} with {{cvt|25|km}} of coastline affected
* {{cvt|2.2|m|ft}} at Andhra Pradesh, inundation distance of {{cvt|0.2|-|1|km}} with {{cvt|985|km}} of coastline affected

Along the coast of Tamil Nadu, the {{cvt|13|km}} [[Marina Beach]] in [[Chennai]] was battered by the tsunami which swept across the beach taking morning walkers unaware. Amateur video recorded at a resort beach showed the tsunami arriving as a large wall of water as it approached the coast and flooding it as it advanced inland. Besides that, a {{cvt|10|m}} black muddy tsunami ravaged the city of [[Karaikal]], where 492 people died. The city of Pondicherry, protected by seawalls was relatively unscathed. Local video recorded that before the arrival of the tsunami, people had swarmed the beach to investigate fish that had been stranded on the sand. Furthermore, at the coastal town of [[Kanyakumari]], the seabed was exposed briefly before a large wall of water can be seen on the horizon and subsequently flooding the town. Other footage showed the tsunami dramatically crashed into the [[Vivekananda Rock Memorial]]. The worst affected area in Tamil Nadu was [[Nagapattinam district]], with 6,051 fatalities caused by a {{cvt|5|m}} tsunami, followed by [[Cuddalore district]], with many villages destroyed. Most of the people killed were members of the fishing community.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> [[Velankanni]], a coastal town with a Catholic [[Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health|Basilica]] and a popular pilgrimage destination was also one of the worst hit by the tsunami that struck at around 9.30 am on that Sunday, when pilgrims who were mostly from Kerala among others were inside the church attending the [[Malayalam]] [[Mass (Catholic Church)|Mass]]. The rising sea water did not enter the shrine, but the receding waters swept away hundreds of pilgrims who were on the beach.<ref name="RED2">{{cite news|date=28 December 2004|title=Velankanni: Death in the churchyard|work=[[Rediff.com]]|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/dec/28iype1.htm|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924155257/http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/dec/28iype1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The shrine's compound, nearby villages, hundreds of shops, homes and pilgrims were washed away into the sea. About 600 pilgrims died.<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|date=27 March 2005|title=Tsunami sufferers question faith|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4382689.stm|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-date=2 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102203253/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4382689.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Rescue teams extricated more than 400 bodies from the sand and rocks in the vicinity and large number of unidentified bodies were buried in mass graves.

Kerala experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern densely populated districts, [[Ernakulam]], [[Alappuzha]], and [[Kollam]], due to diffraction of the waves around [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="Kurian_2006">{{cite journal |last=Kurian |first=N.P. |last2=Baba |first2=M. |title=The 2004 Tsunami Impact on the Southeast and Southwest Coasts of India |journal=Science of Tsunami Hazards |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=93–101 |year=2006}}</ref> Conversely, the southernmost district of [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]] experienced negligible impact, a result of the wide-angle turn required for diffracted waves to reach the peninsular tip.<ref name="Narayanan_2005">{{cite journal |last=Narayanan |first=S. |title=The 2004 Tsunami: Field Observations in Kerala |journal=Current Science |volume=88 |issue=8 |pages=1235–1240 |year=2005}}</ref> The most severe destruction was concentrated along narrow land strips situated between the [[Arabian Sea]] to the west and the [[Kerala backwaters]] to the east, where the geography restricted inland evacuation<ref name="Tsunami_Kerala_Gov">{{cite report |title=Tsunami 2004: Kerala's Response and Recovery |publisher=Department of Revenue and Disaster Management, Government of Kerala |year=2005}}</ref>.
Initial tidal recession preceded the surge, with the highest fatality rate recorded in the [[Alappad]] panchayat—including the villages of [[Cheriazheekkal]] and [[Azheekal]]—where waves reached heights of 4 m (13 ft) and caused approximately 131 deaths.<ref name="AHRC_Tsunami">{{cite web |title=Kerala: The Tsunami Aftermath |url=http://www.humanrights.asia/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Kerala_Tsunami-after.pdf |website=Asian Human Rights Commission |access-date=11 February 2026}}</ref>

[[File:Chennai damage 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A Toyota Corolla deposited on top of a fence and various pieces of debris in [[Chennai]]]]

Many villages in Andhra Pradesh were destroyed. In the [[Krishna District]], the tsunami created havoc in [[Manginapudi]] and on [[Machalipattanam]] Beach. The most affected was [[Prakasam District]], recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at [[Singarayakonda]]. Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/>

The tsunami run-up was only {{cvt|1.6|m|ft}} in areas of Tamil Nadu shielded by the island of Sri Lanka but was {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} in coastal districts such as [[Nagapattinam]] in Tamil Nadu directly across from [[Sumatra]]. On the western coast, the runup elevations were {{cvt|4.5|m}} at [[Kanyakumari District]] in Tamil Nadu and {{cvt|3.4|m}} each at Kollam and Ernakulam districts in Kerala. The time between the waves ranged from about 15 minutes to 90 minutes.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208140737/http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/|archive-date=8 February 2008|title=Tsunami's Impact on India|first=Brandon|last=Cramer|publisher=[[Evergreen College]]|access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref> The tsunami varied in height from {{Cvt|2|m|ft}} to {{Cvt|10|m|ft}} based on survivors' accounts. The tsunami travelled {{cvt|2.5|km}} at its maximum inland at Karaikal, [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]].<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The [[inundation]] distance varied between {{cvt|1006|-|500|m}} in most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more than {{cvt|1|km}}. Areas with dense coconut groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw larger inundation distances.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Presence of seawalls at the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts reduced the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu"/>

====Andaman and Nicobar Islands====

Due to close proximity to the earthquake, the tsunami took just minutes to devastate the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. The Andaman Islands were moderately affected while the island of [[Little Andaman]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]] were severely affected by the tsunami.

In [[South Andaman Island]], based on local eyewitnesses, there were three tsunami waves, with the third being the most destructive. Flooding occurred at the coast and low-lying areas inland, which were connected to open sea through creeks. Inundation was observed, along the east coast of South Andaman Island, restricted to [[Chidiyatapu]], [[Burmanallah]], [[Kodiaghat]], [[Beadnabad]], [[Corbyn's Cove]] and Marina Park/[[Aberdeen Jetty]] areas. Several near-shore establishments and numerous infrastructures such as seawalls and a 20 MW diesel-generated power plant at Bamboo Flat were destroyed.<ref name=Ghosh>T. Ghosh, P. Jana, T.S. Giritharan, S. Bardhan, S.R. Basir, A.K. Ghosh Roy. (2007). Tsunami survey in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. Geological Survey of India Special Publication no. 89. 165–184.</ref> At [[Port Blair]], the water receded before the first wave, and the third wave was the tallest and caused the most damage.

Results of the tsunami survey in South Andaman along Chiriyatapu, Corbyn's Cove and Wandoor beaches:{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}
* {{cvt|5|m}} in maximum tsunami height with a run-up of {{cvt|4.24|m}} at Chiriyatapu Beach
* {{cvt|5.5|m}} in maximum tsunami height and run-up at Corbyn's Cove Beach
* {{cvt|6.6|m}} in maximum tsunami height and run-up of {{cvt|4.63|m}} at Wandoor Beach

Meanwhile, in the Little Andaman, tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore about 25 to 30 minutes after the earthquake in a four-wave cycle of which the fourth tsunami was the most devastating with a wave height of about {{cvt|10|m}}. The tsunami destroyed settlements at [[Hut Bay]] within a range of {{cvt|1|km}} from the seashore. Run up level up to {{cvt|3.8|m}} have been measured.<ref name=Ghosh/>

In [[Malacca, Car Nicobar|Malacca]], located on the island of [[Car Nicobar]], there were three tsunami waves. The sea was observed to rise suddenly before the onset of the first wave. The first wave came 5 minutes after the earthquake, preceded by a recession of the sea up to {{cvt|600|-|700|m}}.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}. The second and third waves came in 10-minute intervals after the first wave. The third wave was the strongest, with a maximum tsunami wave height of {{cvt|11|m}}. Waves nearly three stories high devastated the [[Indian Air Force]] base, located just south of Malacca. The maximum tsunami wave height of {{cvt|11|m}}.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Inundation limit was found to be up to {{cvt|1.25|km}} inland. The impact of the waves was so severe that four oil tankers were thrown almost {{cvt|800|m}} from the seashore near Malacca to the Air force colony main gate.<ref name=Ghosh/> In [[Chuckchucha]] and [[Lapati]], the tsunami arrived in a three-wave cycle with a maximum tsunami wave height of {{cvt|12|m}}.

In [[Campbell Bay (Great Nicobar)|Campbell Bay]] of [[Great Nicobar]] Island, the tsunami waves hit the area three times with an inundation limit of {{cvt|250|-|500|m}}. A rise in sea level was observed before the first wave came within 5 minutes of the earthquake. The second and third waves came in 10-minute intervals after the first. The second wave was the strongest. The tsunami waves wreaked havoc in the densely populated Jogindar Nagar area, situated {{cvt|13|km}} south of Campbell Bay.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} According to local accounts,{{attribution needed|date=September 2018}} tsunami waves attacked the area three times. The first wave came five minutes after the mainshock (0629 hrs.) with a marginal drop in sea level. The second wave came 10 minutes after the first one with a maximum height of {{cvt|4.8|m}} to 8 m (26 ft) and caused the major destruction. The third wave came within 15 minutes after the second with lower wave height. The maximum inundation limit due to tsunami water was about {{cvt|500|m}}.<ref name=Ghosh/>

The worst affected island in the Andaman and Nicobar chain is [[Katchall Island]], with 303 people confirmed dead and 4,354 missing out of a total population of 5,312.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iset.org.in/pdf/souvenir%20&%20abstract%20volume/37-41.pdf|title=Damage to Andaman & Nicobar Islands due to Earthquake and Tsunami of Dec. 26, 2004|last1=Paul|first1=D.K.|last2=Singh|first2=Yogendra|last3=Dubey|first3=R.N.|publisher=Department of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001202201/http://iset.org.in/pdf/souvenir%20%26%20abstract%20volume/37-41.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="andamanconnections.com">{{cite web|url=http://andamanconnections.com/andaman_tsunami.html|title=Tsunami in Andaman & Nicobar Islands|work=Andamanconnections.com|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216080235/http://andamanconnections.com/andaman_tsunami.html|archive-date=16 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="istructe.org">{{cite book|last1=Pomonis|first1=Antonios|url=https://www.istructe.org/downloads/resources-centre/technical-topic-area/eefit/eefit-reports/indian-ccean-tsunami.pdf|title=The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December 2004: Mission Findings in Sri Lanka and Thailand|last2=Rossetto|first2=Tiziana|last3=Peiris|first3=Navin|last4=Wilkinson|first4=Sean|last5=Del Re|first5=Domenico|last6=Koo|first6=Raymond|last7=Manlapig|first7=Raul|last8=Gallocher|first8=Stewart|date=February 2006|publisher=Earthquake Engineering Field Investigation Team, Institution of Structural Engineers|isbn=978-0-901297-41-9|place=London|author-link2=Tiziana Rossetto|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927005453/https://www.istructe.org/downloads/resources-centre/technical-topic-area/eefit/eefit-reports/indian-ccean-tsunami.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The significant shielding of Port Blair and Campbell Bay by steep mountainous outcrops contributed to the relatively low wave heights at these locations, whereas the open terrain along the eastern coast at Malacca and [[Hut Bay]] contributed to the great height of the tsunami waves.<ref name="andamanconnections.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nicee.org/SumatraEQ_India_IITK_QuickReport.pdf|title=Quick Report on the Study of the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami Effects|publisher=Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|access-date=21 December 2016|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152754/http://www.nicee.org/SumatraEQ_India_IITK_QuickReport.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Reports of tsunami wave height:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eeri.org/lfe/pdf/india_tsunami_eeri_report.pdf|title=The Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004: The Effects in Mainland India and in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands|work=EERI Special Earthquake Report|date=April 2005|access-date=21 December 2016|archive-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010004407/https://www.eeri.org/lfe/pdf/india_tsunami_eeri_report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=M. V.|last1=Ramanamurthy|first2=S.|last2=Sundaramoorthy|first3=Y.|last3=Pari|first4=V. Ranga|last4=Rao|first5=P.|last5=Mishra|first6=M.|last6=Bhat|first7=Tune|last7=Usha|first8=R.|last8=Venkatesan|first9=B. R.|last9=Subramanian|display-authors=1|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/jun102005/1736.pdf|pages=1736–1740|journal=[[Current Science]]|volume=88|issue=11|date=10 June 2005|title=Inundation of sea water in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Tamil Nadu coast during 2004 Sumatra tsunami|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927083425/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/jun102005/1736.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

* {{cvt|1.5|m}} at [[Diglipur]] and [[Rangat]] at North Andaman Island
* {{cvt|8|m}} high at Campbell Bay on [[Great Nicobar Island]]
* {{cvt|10|-|12|m}} high at Malacca (in Car Nicobar Island) and at Hut Bay on [[Little Andaman Island]]
* {{cvt|3|m}} high at Port Blair on South Andaman Island

===Maldives===
The tsunami severely affected the [[Maldives]] at a distance of {{cvt|2500|km}} from the epicentre. Similar to Sri Lanka, survivors reported three waves with the second wave being the most powerful.<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu"/> Being rich in coral reefs, the Maldives provides an opportunity for scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on coral atolls. The significantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives compared to Sri Lanka is mostly due to the topography and [[bathymetry]] of the atoll chain with offshore coral reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the tsunami.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fritz|first1=Hermann M.|last2=Synolakis|first2=Costas E.|last3=McAdoo|first3=Brian G.|title=Maldives Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|date=June 2006|volume=22|issue=3_suppl|pages=137–154|doi=10.1193/1.2201973|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..137F }}</ref> After the tsunami, there was some concern that the country might be submerged entirely and become uninhabitable. However, this was proven untrue.

The highest tsunami wave measured was {{cvt|4|m}} at [[Vilufushi (Thaa Atoll)|Vilufushi Island]]. The tsunami arrived approximately two hours after the earthquake. The greatest tsunami inundation occurred at [[North Male Atoll]], [[Male Island]] at {{cvt|250|m}} along the streets.<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu">{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Philip L.-F.|last2=Lynett|first2=Patrick|last3=Fernando|first3=Harindra|last4=Jaffe|first4=Bruce E.|last5=Fritz|first5=Hermann|last6=Higman|first6=Bretwood|last7=Morton|first7=Robert|last8=Goff|first8=James|last9=Synolakis|first9=Costas|title=Observations by the International Tsunami Survey Team in Sri Lanka|journal=Science|date=10 June 2005|volume=308|issue=5728|pages=1595|doi=10.1126/science.1110730|pmid=15947179 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1595L }}</ref>

Local footage recorded showed the tsunami flooding the streets up to knee level in town, while another video taken at the beach showed the tsunami slowly flooding and gradually surging inland.

The Maldives tsunami wave analysis:<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu" />
* {{cvt|1.3|-|2.4|m}} at North Male Atoll, Male Island
* {{cvt|2|m}} at North Male Atoll, [[Huhule Island]]
* {{cvt|1.7|-|2.8|m}} at [[South Male Atoll]], [[Embudhu Finothu]]
* {{cvt|2.5|-|3.3|m}} at [[Laamu Atoll]], [[Fonadhoo Island]]
* {{cvt|2.2|-|2.9|m}} at Laamu Atoll, [[Gan Island]]
* {{cvt|2.3|-|3|m}} at North Male Atoll, [[Dhiffushi Island]]
* {{cvt|2.2|-|2.4|m}} at North Male Atoll, [[Huraa Island]]
* more than {{cvt|1.5|m}} at North Male Atoll, [[Kuda Huraa Island]]

===Myanmar===
In [[Myanmar]], the tsunami caused only moderate damage, which arrived between 2 and 5.5 hours after the earthquake. Although the country's western [[Andaman Sea]] coastline lies at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were smaller tsunamis than the neighbouring Thai coast, because the main tsunami source did not extend to the Andaman Islands. Another factor is that some coasts of [[Taninthayi Division]] were protected by the [[Myeik Archipelago]]. Based on scientific surveys from the [[Irrawaddy Delta]] through Taninthayi Division, it was revealed that tsunami heights along the Myanmar coast were between {{cvt|0.4|-|2.9|m}}. Eyewitnesses compared the tsunami with the "rainy-season high tide"; although at most locations, the tsunami height was similar or smaller than the "rainy-season high tide" level.<ref name="terrapub.co.jp">{{cite journal|url=https://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/2006/5802/58020243.pdf|first1=Kenji|last1=Satake|first2=Than Tin|last2=Aung|first3=Yuki|last3=Sawai|first4=Yukinobu|last4=Okamura|display-authors=1|title=Tsunami heights and damage along the Myanmar coast from the December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake|journal=Earth Planets Space|volume=58|issue=2|pages=243–252|year=2006|access-date=22 December 2018|doi=10.1186/BF03353384|bibcode=2006EP&S...58..243S|s2cid=129597697|doi-access=free|archive-date=4 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004032411/https://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/2006/5802/58020243.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tsunami survey heights:{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}
* {{cvt|0.6|-|2.3|m}} around the Irrawaddy delta
* {{cvt|0.9|-|2.9|m}} at [[Dawei]] area
* {{cvt|0.7|-|2.2|m}} around [[Myeik, Burma|Myeik]]
* {{cvt|0.4|-|2.6|m}} around [[Kawthaung]]

Interviews with residents indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in Taninthayi Division or the Irrawaddy Delta. The 71 casualties can be attributed to poor housing infrastructure and additionally, the fact that the coastal residents in the surveyed areas live on flat land along the coast, especially in the Irrawaddy Delta, and that there is no higher ground to which to evacuate. The tsunami heights from the earthquake were not more than {{cvt|3|m}} along the Myanmar coast, the amplitudes were slightly large off the Irrawaddy Delta, probably because the shallow delta caused a concentration in tsunami energy.<ref name="terrapub.co.jp"/>

===Somalia===
The tsunami travelled {{cvt|5000|km}} west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of [[Somalia]]. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the [[Horn of Africa]], drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest-hit was a {{cvt|650|km}} stretch of coastline between [[Garacad]] ([[Mudug]] region) and [[Hafun]] ([[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region), which forms part of [[Puntland]] province. Most of the victims were reported along the low-lying [[Ras Hafun|Xaafuun Peninsula]].<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu">{{cite journal|url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf|title=Somalia Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami|first1=Hermann M.|last1=Fritz|first2=Jose C.|last2=Borrero|doi=10.1193/1.2201972|journal=Earthquake Spectra|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=S219–S233|date=June 2006|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..219F|s2cid=220297402|access-date=22 December 2018|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224013252/http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu"/>

Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from {{cvt|5|m}} to {{cvt|9|m}} with inundation distances varying from {{cvt|44|m}} to {{cvt|704|m}}. The maximum runup height of almost {{cvt|9|m}} was recorded in [[Bayla|Bandarbeyla]]. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of [[Eyl]], solely on an eyewitness account.

The highest death toll was in Hafun, with 19 dead and 160 people presumed missing out of its 5,000 inhabitants. This was the highest number of casualties in a single African town and the largest tsunami death toll in a single town to the west of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Small drawbacks were observed before the third and most powerful tsunami wave flooded the town.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu"/>

===Other locations===
[[File:Tanjungtokongwave.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Flooding in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], Malaysia]]
The tsunami also reached Malaysia, mainly on the northern states such as [[Kedah]], [[Perak]] and [[Penang]] and on offshore islands such as [[Langkawi]] island. [[Peninsular Malaysia]] was shielded by the full force of the tsunami due to the protection offered by the island of Sumatra, which lies just off the western coast.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/tsunami-death-toll-passes-283-000-20050128-gdkkw6.html|title=Tsunami death toll passes 283,000|date=28 January 2005|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115041926/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/tsunami-death-toll-passes-283-000-20050128-gdkkw6.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bangladesh escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the [[strike-slip fault]] was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In [[Yemen]], the tsunami killed two people with a maximum runup of {{cvt|2|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|title=International Tsunami Information Center – International Tsunami Information Center|website=itic.ioc-unesco.org|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=19 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419214841/http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|url-status=live}}</ref>

The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. A few other African countries also recorded fatalities; one in Kenya, three in [[Seychelles]], ten in Tanzania, and South Africa, where two were killed as a direct result of the tsunami—the furthest from the epicentre.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241273975|title=Field Surveys of 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami From Sumatra to East Africa|first1=Hermann M.|last1=Fritz|first2=Jose C.|last2=Borrero|first3=Costas E.|last3=Synolakis|first4=Emile A.|last4=Okal|date=1 January 2006|access-date=29 January 2018|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230015407/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241273975_FIELD_SURVEYS_OF_2004_INDIAN_OCEAN_TSUNAMI_FROM_SUMATRA_TO_EAST_AFRICA|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/42307/103954_Unesco_Yemen_Tsunami_FzOk3.pdf?sequence=1|title=Unesco Yemen Tsunami|work=smartech.gatech.edu|access-date=13 November 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152811/https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/42307/103954_Unesco_Yemen_Tsunami_FzOk3.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tidal surges also occurred along the [[Western Australian]] coast that lasted for several hours, resulting in boats losing their moorings and two people needing to be rescued.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/wa-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples-20041229-gdke6z.html|title=WA feels the tsunami's ripples|date=28 December 2004|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=22 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922000416/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/wa-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples-20041229-gdke6z.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Impact==
===Countries affected===
{{main|Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami}}

[[File:2004 Tsunami casualties and damage.png|thumb|upright=1.5|{{legend|red|severe damage and loss of life}}{{legend|orange|moderate damage and some loss of life}}{{legend|yellow|minor damage and no loss of life}}{{legend|dodgerblue|loss of citizens abroad}}{{legend||text=A|received damages and loss of citizens abroad}}]]
According to the final report of the [[Tsunami Evaluation Coalition]], a total of 227,898 people died.<ref name="auto"/> Another common total, as given by the UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery, is 229,866 dead.<ref name="UN Special Envoy">{{Cite web|work=UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery|title=The Human Toll|url=http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp|date=January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423184048/http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp|archive-date=23 April 2006}}</ref> Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten [[Lists of earthquakes#Deadliest earthquakes|worst earthquakes in recorded history]], as well as the single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with most death toll estimates at around 170,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicreliefusa.org/home?aspxerrorpath=/404.aspx|title=Home|publisher=Islamic Relief USA|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119163003/http://www.islamicreliefusa.org/home?aspxerrorpath=/404.aspx|archive-date=19 January 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The death toll for Indonesia alone may be as high as 172,761 lives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parwanto|first1=Novia Budi|last2=Oyama|first2=Tatsuo|year=2014|title=A statistical analysis and comparison of historical earthquake and tsunami disasters in Japan and Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction|volume=7|pages=122–141|doi=10.1016/j.ijdrr.2013.10.003|bibcode=2014IJDRR...7..122P|issn=2212-4209}}</ref> An initial report by [[Siti Fadilah Supari]], the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of 280,000 fatalities.<ref name=BBC280>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4204385.stm|title=Indonesia quake toll jumps again|publisher=BBC News|date=25 January 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=21 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821153214/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4204385.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the estimated number of dead and missing in Indonesia were later reduced by over 50,000. In their report, the Tsunami Evaluation Coalition stated, "It should be remembered that all such data are subject to error, as data on missing persons especially are not always as good as one might wish".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Telford|first1=John|url=https://cdn.sida.se/publications/files/sida61330en-joint-evaluation-of-the-international-response-to-the-indian-ocean-tsunami.pdf|title=Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami: Synthesis Report|last2=Cosgrave|first2=John|publisher=[[Tsunami Evaluation Coalition]]|year=2006|isbn=0-85003-807-3|location=London|pages=159}}</ref> A much higher number of deaths has been suggested for Myanmar based on reports from Thailand.<ref name="AsiaNews-Myanmar"/>

The tsunami caused severe damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the furthest recorded fatality directly attributed to the tsunami at [[Rooi-Els, Western Cape|Rooi-Els]], close to [[Cape Town]], {{cvt|8000|km}} from the epicentre.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hundreds of thousands of people killed as tsunamis devastate large swathes of South and Southeast Asia, coming as far as South Africa |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/hundreds-thousands-people-killed-tsunamis-devastate-large-swathes-south-and-southeast|access-date=15 November 2022|website=South African History Online|archive-date=15 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115221227/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/hundreds-thousands-people-killed-tsunamis-devastate-large-swathes-south-and-southeast|url-status=live}}</ref>

Relief agencies reported that one third of the dead appeared to be children. This was a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. [[Oxfam]] went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishers to return and looking after their children in the houses.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4383573.stm|title=Most tsunami dead female – Oxfam|publisher=BBC News|date=26 March 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=26 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726142516/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4383573.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Then-[[UN Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organizations feared that the final death toll might double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive [[humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|humanitarian response]].{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

In addition to a large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the [[Nordic countries]].<ref name="Onnettomuustutkintakeskus">{{cite web|title=A2/2004Y Aasian luonnonkatastrofi 26.12.2004|url=https://turvallisuustutkinta.fi/fi/index/tutkintaselostukset/muutonnettomuudet/tutkintaselostuksetvuosittain/muutonnettomuudet2004/a22004yaasianluonnonkatastrofi26.12.2004.html|publisher=Onnettomuustutkintakeskus|language=fi|date=26 December 2004|access-date=26 December 2019|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725132234/https://turvallisuustutkinta.fi/fi/index/tutkintaselostukset/muutonnettomuudet/tutkintaselostuksetvuosittain/muutonnettomuudet2004/a22004yaasianluonnonkatastrofi26.12.2004.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Sweden was the European country most severely affected both in absolute numbers, and by a wide margin when considered in relation to the country's population, with a death toll of 543. France was close behind with a death toll of 542 followed by Germany with 539 identified victims.


{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" width="100%" style="padding-left:2em;"
|-
!scope=col|Affected country{{ref label|a|a}}
!scope=col|Confirmed deaths
!scope=col|Estimated deaths{{ref label|b|b}}
!scope=col|Injured
!scope=col|Missing
!scope=col|Displaced
!scope=col class=unsortable|Ref
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia|Indonesia]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|130,736}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|167,540}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|37,063}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|500,000}}+
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="Meisl">{{cite journal|author1=Meisl, C.S.|author2=Safaie S.|author3=Elwood K.J.|author4=Gupta R.|author5=Kowsari R.|year=2006|title=Housing Reconstruction in Northern Sumatra after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|doi=10.1193/1.2201668|volume=22|issue=3_suppl|pages=777–802|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..777M|s2cid=110185015}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Sri Lanka}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|35,322}}{{ref label|c|c}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|35,322}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|21,411}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|516,150}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="wsws1">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/dec2005/sri2-d29.shtml|title=One year after the tsunami, Sri Lankan survivors still live in squalour|publisher=World Socialist Web Site|date=29 December 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=23 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123063125/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/dec2005/sri2-d29.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|India}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on India|India]]

|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|12,405}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|16,269}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|3,874}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|647,599}}
|style=text-align:center;|
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Thailand}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Thailand|Thailand]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|5,395}}{{ref label|d|d}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|8,212}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|8,457}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2,817}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|7,000}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="memorial">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunamimemorial.or.th/information.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928063502/http://www.tsunamimemorial.or.th/information.htm|archive-date=28 September 2007|title=TsunamiMemorial.or.th|date=28 September 2007|access-date=24 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="Schwartz">{{cite journal|author1=Schwartz, D.|author2=Goldberg A.|author3=Ashenasi I.|author4=Nakash G.|author5=Leiba A.|author6=Levei Y.|author7=Bar-Dayan Y.|year=2006|title=Prehospital care of tsunami victims in Thailand: description and analysis|journal=Prehospital and Disaster Medicine|volume=21|issue=3|pages=204–210|pmid=16892886|doi=10.1017/S1049023X0000368X|s2cid=25251413}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Somalia}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Somalia|Somalia]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|78}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|289}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|5,000}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref>{{cite news|author=Martin Plaut|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4560246.stm|title=Tsunami: Somalia's slow recovery|publisher=BBC News|date=26 December 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=1 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201090554/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4560246.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/UNID/D39A0A882D6A7E9985256F82006A1158?OpenDocument|title=India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Somalia, Thailand: Earthquake and Tsunami OCHA Situation Report No. 14|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-date=7 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507034200/http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/UNID/D39A0A882D6A7E9985256F82006A1158?OpenDocument|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Myanmar|1974}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Myanmar|Myanmar]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|61}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|400}}–600
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|45}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|200}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|3,200}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="AsiaNews-Myanmar"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145489.stm|title=Asia-Pacific | 'Hundreds feared dead' in Burma|publisher=BBC News|date=4 January 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=4 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104164106/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145489.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Maldives}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on the Maldives|Maldives]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|82}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|108}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|26}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|15,000}}+
|style=text-align:center;|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunamimaldives.mv/?action=situationAssesment|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617182704/http://www.tsunamimaldives.mv/?action=situationAssesment|archive-date=17 June 2009|title=TsunamiMaldives.mv|access-date=24 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="UNICEF_Maldives2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/UNICEF_Tsunami_Maldives_2006report.pdf|title=The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Disaster: Evaluation of UNICEF's response (emergency and recovery phase). Maldives Report|work=UNICEF|date=May 2006|page=i|access-date=26 June 2011|archive-date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118182452/http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/UNICEF_Tsunami_Maldives_2006report.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Malaysia}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Malaysia|Malaysia]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|68}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|75}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|299}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|6}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|5000}}+
|style=text-align:center;|<ref>{{cite web|author=english@peopledaily.com.cn|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200501/13/eng20050113_170555.html|title=Death toll in Asian tsunami disaster tops 159,000|work=People's Daily|date=13 January 2005|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-date=9 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609220247/http://english.people.com.cn/200501/13/eng20050113_170555.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/killerwaves|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023160459/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/killerwaves|archive-date=23 October 2012|title=Killer Waves|publisher=Channel NewsAsia|access-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Tanzania}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering some casualties and damage|Tanzania]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|10}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|13}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|3}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200501/s1275702.htm|title=Asian tsunami death toll passes 144,000|publisher=ABC|location=Australia|date=3 January 2005|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617042814/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200501/s1275702.htm|archive-date=17 June 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Seychelles}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering some casualties and damage|Seychelles]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|3}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|3}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|57}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|200}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="rw">{{cite web|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/KHII-6KH4KY?OpenDocument|title=The Seychelles raises its voice|date=4 November 2005|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-date=6 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506125422/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/KHII-6KH4KY?OpenDocument|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alnap.org/tec/pdf/TEC_initial_report_20051223_finalversion.pdf|title=Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Initial Findings|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060324222422/http://www.alnap.org/tec/pdf/TEC_initial_report_20051223_finalversion.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2006}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Bangladesh}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering some casualties and damage|Bangladesh]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="Ioualalen">{{cite journal|last1=Ioualalen|first1=M.|last2=Pelinovsky|first2=E.|last3=Asavanant|first3=J.|last4=Lipikorn|first4=R.|last5=Deschamps|first5=A.|year=2007|title=On the weak impact of the 26 December Indian Ocean tsunami on the Bangladesh coast|journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences|volume=7|issue=1|pages=141–147|doi=10.5194/nhess-7-141-2007|bibcode=2007NHESS...7..141I|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|South Africa}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering some casualties and damage|South Africa]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}{{ref label|e|e}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="Okal">{{cite journal|author1=Okal, E.A.|author2=Hartnady C.J.|title=The South Sandwich Islands earthquake of 27 June 1929: seismological study and inference on tsunami risk for the southern Atlantic|journal=[[South African Journal of Geology]]|volume=112|pages=359–370|doi=10.2113/gssajg.112.3-4.359|url=http://www.africaarray.psu.edu/publications/pdfs/359_370%20Okal_Hartnady.pdf|access-date=26 June 2011|year=2010|issue=3–4|archive-date=17 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417062833/http://www.africaarray.psu.edu/publications/pdfs/359_370%20Okal_Hartnady.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Yemen}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering some casualties and damage|Yemen]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=text-align:center;|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/24885/yemen-tsunami-damage-over-us-1-million-unep-assessment|title=YEMEN: Tsunami damage over US$1 million – UNEP assessment|via=The New Humanitarian|date=22 February 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=26 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326175227/http://www.irinnews.org/report/24885/yemen-tsunami-damage-over-us-1-million-unep-assessment|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Kenya}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering some casualties and damage|Kenya]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|1}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|1}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|2}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=text-align:center;|
|-
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Madagascar}} [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Countries suffering damage only|Madagascar]]
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|}}
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|1,000}}+
|style=text-align:center;|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4129639.stm|title=Tsunami devastates Somali island|publisher=BBC News|date=29 December 2004|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=10 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210044854/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4129639.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-style=background-color:#eaecf0; class=sortbottom
|style=padding-left:1em;|'''Total estimates'''
|style=padding-left:1em;|'''184,167'''
|style=padding-left:1em;|'''227,898'''
|style=padding-left:1em;|'''125,000'''
|style=padding-left:1em;|'''43,789'''
|style=padding-left:1em;|'''1,740,000'''
|style=text-align:center;|
|-style=font-size:85%; font-weight:normal; background-color:#f8f9fa; border-top:2px solid grey; class=sortbottom
|colspan="7" |{{Unbulleted list
|{{note|a|a}} This table refers only to countries directly affected by the tsunami, not to countries whose citizens were affected while overseas.
|{{note|b|b}} Includes those reported under 'Confirmed'. If no separate estimates are available, the number in this column is the same as reported under 'Confirmed'.
|{{note|c|c}} Does not include approximately 19,000 missing people initially declared by [[Tamil Tiger]] authorities from regions under their control.
|{{note|d|d}} Data includes at least 2,464 foreigners.
|{{note|e|e}} Does not include South African citizens who died outside of South Africa (e.g., tourists in Thailand).}}
|}

===Environmental impact===
[[File:TsunamiAftermathNorthofPhuket NASA.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Tsunami inundation in [[Khao Lak]], Thailand]]
Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake caused an enormous environmental impact that affected the region for many years. Severe damage was inflicted on [[ecosystem]]s such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant [[biodiversity]] and [[groundwater]]. Also, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of [[sewage]] collectors and treatment plants threatened the environment even further. The environmental impact took a long time and significant resources to assess.<ref>{{cite web|title=Impact of Tsunamis on Ecosystems|work=United Nations Atlas of the Oceans|date=10 March 2005|url=http://www.oceansatlas.org/id/71687|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820112413/http://www.oceansatlas.org/id/71687|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 August 2008}}</ref>

The main effect was caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil by saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. In the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth, and [[aquifer]]s were invaded through porous rock. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water.<ref name="IWMI"/>

The Colombo-based [[International Water Management Institute]] monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one-and-a-half years after the event.<ref name="IWMI">{{cite journal|title=Helping restore the quality of drinking water after the tsunami|year=2010|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Success_Stories/PDF/2010/Issue%207%20-%20Helping_restore_the_quality_of_drinking_water_after_the_tsunami.pdf|publisher=International Water Management Institute|journal=Success Stories|issue=10|access-date=11 August 2021|archive-date=2 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302022712/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Success_Stories/PDF/2010/Issue%207%20-%20Helping_restore_the_quality_of_drinking_water_after_the_tsunami.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[International Water Management Institute|IWMI]] developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the [[World Health Organization]] as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.<ref>[https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/technotes/en/ Water sanitation and health: WHO technical notes for emergencies.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212053301/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/technotes/en/ |date=12 February 2016 }} Page. Retrieved 25 February 2011</ref>

Salted-over soil becomes infertile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover.<ref name="IWMI"/>

In addition to other forms of aid,<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Ocean tsunami|date=19 December 2014|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/news/news/Pages/indian-ocean-tsunami|website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government|access-date=11 August 2021|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811212536/https://www.dfat.gov.au/news/news/Pages/indian-ocean-tsunami|url-status=live}}</ref> the Australian government sent ecological experts to help develop strategies for reef-monitoring and rehabilitation of marine environments and coral reefs in the Maldives, Seychelles and other areas. Scientists had developed significant ecological expertise from work with the [[Great Barrier Reef]], in Australia's northeastern waters.<ref name="Australia">{{cite book|title=Australia's response to the Indian Ocean tsunami REPORT FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 30 JUNE 2005|date=2005|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/34F36A2FE297C7BD49257074001D828E-ausaid-tsunami-06sep.pdf|access-date=11 August 2021|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811211831/https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/34F36A2FE297C7BD49257074001D828E-ausaid-tsunami-06sep.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In response to the unprecedented situation, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) worked with governments in the region to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Environmental Issues Emerging from Wreckage of Asian Tsunami|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2004/unep255.doc.htm|publisher=United Nations|access-date=3 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050111221153/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=414&ArticleID=4692&l=en|archive-date=11 January 2005|date=30 December 2004|url-status=unfit}}</ref> UNEP established an emergency fund, set up a Task Force to respond to requests for assistance from countries affected by the tsunami, and was able to mobilize and distribute approximately US$9.3 million for environmental recovery and disaster risk reduction between 2004 and 2007. Funding came from other international agencies and from countries including Finland, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.<ref name="UNEP2008">{{cite book|title=UNEP Post-Tsunami Recover y Activities 2004-2007|date=2008|publisher=UNEP Post-Tsunami Recover y Activities 2004-2007 United Nations Environment Programme|url=https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/PT_recovery.pdf|access-date=11 August 2021|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811210519/https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/PT_recovery.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=434&ArticleID=4818&l=en|title=United Nations Environment Programme; Environment for Development|access-date=22 April 2006|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060412095140/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=434&ArticleID=4818&l=en|archive-date=12 April 2006|url-status=live}}</ref>

Evidence suggested that the presence of [[mangroves]] in coastal areas had provided some protection, when compared to areas that had been cleared for aquaculture or development. As a result, [[mangrove restoration]] become a focus of a number of projects, with varied success. Such approaches to [[ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction]] appear to be most successful when local communities are closely involved as stakeholders throughout the process, and when careful attention is paid to the physical conditions of chosen sites to ensure that mangroves can thrive there.<ref name="Zimmer">{{cite journal|last1=Zimmer|first1=Katarina|title=Many mangrove restorations fail. Is there a better way?|journal=Knowable Magazine|date=22 July 2021|doi=10.1146/knowable-072221-1|url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/food-environment/2021/many-mangrove-restorations-fail|access-date=11 August 2021|doi-access=free|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816114657/https://knowablemagazine.org/article/food-environment/2021/many-mangrove-restorations-fail|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Economic impact===
[[File:Chennai beach2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Chennai]]'s [[Marina Beach]] after the tsunami]]
The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale examined. While the overall impact on the national economies was minor, local economies were devastated. The two main occupations most affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gunatillake|first=Daya|title=The 2004 Tsunami in Sri Lanka: Destruction and recovery|journal=Geography|year=2007|volume=92|issue=3|pages=285–293|doi=10.1080/00167487.2007.12094208|jstor=40574342}}</ref> Some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by saltwater from the ocean.<ref>Pearce, Fred. "[https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6840 Tsunami's salt water may leave islands uninhabitable]." ''[[New Scientist]].'' 5 January 2005. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422084629/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6840 |date=22 April 2008 }}</ref>

The impact on coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukabc.org/tsunamis.htm|title=Tsunamis Devastate Fisherfolk of Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea|website=ukabc.org|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=3 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303024418/http://www.ukabc.org/tsunamis.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/70B417968D5FCDD0C1256F8400498CE6-fao-souasi-7jan.pdf|title=Impacts of the Tsunami on Fisheries, Aquaculture and Coastal Livelihoods|date=7 January 2005|publisher=ReliefWeb|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308062132/https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/70B417968D5FCDD0C1256F8400498CE6-fao-souasi-7jan.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, artisanal fishery, in which the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicated that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions were destroyed by the wave surges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/food-supply-and-food-security-situation-countries-affected-asia-tsunami|title=Food supply and food security situation in countries affected by the Asia tsunami – Indonesia|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=18 February 2005|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=21 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121122102/https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/food-supply-and-food-security-situation-countries-affected-asia-tsunami|url-status=live}}</ref>

While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri Lanka's fishing industry, it also created a demand for fibreglass-reinforced plastic catamarans in the boatyards of [[Tamil Nadu]]. Given that over 51,000 vessels were lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bobpigo.org/bbn/sep_06/pages10-12.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624095558/http://www.bobpigo.org/bbn/sep_06/pages10-12.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2011|title=Demand for FRP boats rise after tsunami|access-date=12 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Even though only coastal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted as a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rigg, Johnathan|author2=Lisa Lawt|author3=May Tan-Mullins|author4=Carl Grundy-Warr|title=The Indian Ocean Tsunami: Socio-Economic Impacts in Thailand.|journal=The Geographical Journal|date=December 2005|volume=171|issue=4|pages=374–379|jstor=3451210|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4959.2005.00175_3.x|bibcode=2005GeogJ.171..374R|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/1284/1/1284.pdf?DDD14+dgg0cnm|access-date=20 March 2019|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724141017/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/1284/1/1284.pdf?DDD14+dgg0cnm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations.<ref>Chapter 6, "Thailand", in Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley, [http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668 ''The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722005138/http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668 |date=22 July 2011 }}. Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA: Edward Elgar, 2010.</ref>

Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the [[Malacca Straits]], which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths were previously up to {{cvt|4000|ft|m|order=flip}}, and are now only {{cvt|100|ft|m|order=flip}} in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years. Officials also hoped that piracy in the region would drop off, since the tsunami had killed pirates and destroyed their boats.<ref>Staff Writer. "[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6791600 Tsunami redrew ship channels, ocean floor]." [[NBC News]]/Associated Press. 5 January 2005.</ref> Due to multiple factors, there was a 71.6% drop in the number of piracy incidents between 2004 and 2005, from 60 to 17 incidents. Levels remained relatively low for some years. However, between 2013 and 2014, piracy incidents rose dramatically by 73.2% to exceed pre-tsunami levels.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Birchard|first1=Emma Louise|title=Piracy in the Strait of Malacca: The geopolitical background behind piracy and its impacts on Global Financial Centres|url=https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/10228/Birchard%2C_Emma_Louise_1.pdf?sequence=1|publisher=Radboud University|year=2020|access-date=11 August 2021|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811200130/https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/10228/Birchard,_Emma_Louise_1.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Historical context===
{{See also|Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake}}
{{Location map+|Indonesia Sumatra|float=right|alt=Earthquakes in Sumatra|caption=Of the ten strongest [[List of earthquakes in Indonesia|Indonesian earthquakes]] ≥ 8.3 M<sub>w</sub>, six occurred near Sumatra|places=
{{Location map~|Indonesia Sumatra|lat=3.316|long=95.854|position=right|label=<div style="position: relative; top: 0.4em;">2004</div>}}
{{Location map~|Indonesia Sumatra|lat=-2.5|long=100.5|position=right|label=<div style="position: relative; top: 0.4em;">[[1833 Sumatra earthquake|1833]]</div>}}
{{Location map~|Indonesia Sumatra|lat=2.09|long=97.15|position=right|label=<div style="position: relative; top: 0.4em;">[[2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake|2005]]</div>}}
{{Location map~|Indonesia Sumatra|lat=1.0|long=97.5|position=right|label=<div style="position: relative; top: 0.4em;">[[1861 Sumatra earthquake|1861]]</div>}}
{{Location map~|Indonesia Sumatra|lat=-4.52|long=101.374|position=right|label=<div style="position: relative; top: 0.4em;">[[2007 Bengkulu earthquakes|2007]]</div>}}
{{Location map~|Indonesia Sumatra|lat=-1.0|long=99.0|position=right|label=<div style="position: relative; top: 0.4em;">[[1797 Sumatra earthquake|1797]]</div>}}
}}
The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D. 1400.<ref>{{cite news|last=Palmer|first=Jason|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7697482.stm|title=Tsunami in 2004 'not the first'|publisher=BBC News|date=29 October 2008|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-date=15 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215121702/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7697482.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/2008-10-30/researchers-uncover-2004-tsunami-predecessor/35702|title=Researchers uncover 2004 tsunami predecessor|work=ABC Radio Australia News|date=30 October 2008|access-date=13 April 2011|archive-date=17 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217213901/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/2008-10-30/researchers-uncover-2004-tsunami-predecessor/35702|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard-hit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of [[Sumatra]]; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in the soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/545772/|title=Scientists Find Evidence of Tsunamis on Indian Ocean Shores Long Before 2004|publisher=Newswise.com|date=27 October 2008|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=31 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531090402/http://newswise.com/articles/view/545772/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined is the [[List of natural disasters by death toll|world's deadliest]] natural disaster since the 1976 [[Tangshan earthquake]]. The earthquake was the third-most-powerful earthquake recorded since 1900. The deadliest-known earthquake in history occurred in [[1556 Shaanxi earthquake|1556 in Shaanxi, China]], with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this period may not be as reliable.<ref name="usgs1">{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php|title=Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World (Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths)|publisher=United States Geological Survey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901233953/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php|archive-date=1 September 2009}}</ref>

Before 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of [[Krakatoa]], thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782, about 40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the [[South China Sea]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=A. Y. A.|last2=Switzer|first2=A. D.|last3=Dominey-Howes|first3=D.|last4=Aitchison|first4=J. C.|last5=Zong|first5=Y.|title=Written records of historical tsunamis in the northeastern South China Sea – challenges associated with developing a new integrated database|journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences|date=1 September 2010|volume=10|issue=9|pages=1793–1806|doi=10.5194/nhess-10-1793-2010|url=http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/10/1793/2010/nhess-10-1793-2010.pdf|bibcode=2010NHESS..10.1793L|doi-access=free|access-date=6 August 2013|archive-date=6 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706180220/https://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/10/1793/2010/nhess-10-1793-2010.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>  The deadliest tsunami before 2004 was Italy's [[1908 Messina earthquake]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] where the earthquake and tsunami killed about 123,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/the-world-s-worst-natural-disasters-1.743208|title=The world's worst natural disasters|publisher=CBC News|date=31 August 2010|access-date=19 October 2019|archive-date=19 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119154212/http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2008/05/08/f-natural-disasters-history.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Other effects===
[[File:Tsunami 2004 aftermath. Aceh, Indonesia, 2005. Photo- AusAID (10730863873).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Tsunami aftermath in Aceh, Indonesia]]

Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frankenberg|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Friedman|first2=Jed|last3=Gillespie|first3=Thomas|last4=Ingwersen|first4=Nicholas|last5=Pynoos|first5=Robert|last6=Rifai|first6=Iip Umar|last7=Sikoki|first7=Bondan|last8=Steinberg|first8=Alan|last9=Sumantri|first9=Cecep|last10=Suriastini|first10=Wayan|last11=Thomas|first11=Duncan|date=September 2008|title=Mental Health in Sumatra After the Tsunami|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=98|issue=9|pages=1671–1677|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.120915|issn=0090-0036|pmc=2509591|pmid=18633091}}</ref> Even 14 years afterwards, researchers find [[HPA axis]] dysregulation and "burnout" in survivors.<ref name="Lawton Frankenberg Seeman Crimmins 2023 p.">{{cite journal|last1=Lawton|first1=Ralph|last2=Frankenberg|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Seeman|first3=Teresa|last4=Crimmins|first4=Eileen|last5=Sumantri|first5=Cecep|last6=Thomas|first6=Duncan|date=16 October 2023|title=Exposure to the Indian Ocean Tsunami shapes the HPA-axis resulting in HPA "burnout" 14 years later|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=120|issue=44|article-number=e2306497120|doi=10.1073/pnas.2306497120|pmid=37844215|pmc=10622908|bibcode=2023PNAS..12006497L|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried.

The hardest-hit area, [[Aceh]], is a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to the [[Insurgency in Aceh|insurgency]] between the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces|Indonesian military]] and [[Free Aceh Movement]] (GAM). Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that Muslims were killing each other in an ongoing conflict.<ref>Broadway, Bill. "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57758-2005Jan7.html Divining a Reason for Devastation]"; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914005421/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57758-2005Jan7.html |date=14 September 2017 }}. ''[[The Washington Post]]''. 8 January 2005.</ref> Saudi cleric [[Muhammad Al-Munajjid]] attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine" during Christmas break.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baylor.edu/mediacommunications/index.php?id=25982|title=Associated Press û Tsunami survivors cling tightly to faith across ravaged region|website=Baylor University|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724140458/https://www.baylor.edu/mediacommunications/index.php?id=25982|url-status=live}}</ref>

The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led GAM to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_08_05_aceh.pdf|title=Memorandum of Understanding between Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement|date=15 August 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|publisher=BBC News|archive-date=29 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629202428/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_08_05_aceh.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a poll conducted in 27 countries, 15% of respondents named the tsunami the most significant event of the year. Only the [[Iraq War]] was named by as many respondents.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/30_12_05_ws_events_poll.pdf|title=Most significant events of 2005|date=30 December 2005|publisher=BBC World Service|access-date=26 September 2013|archive-date=2 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002211446/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/30_12_05_ws_events_poll.pdf|url-status=live}}, and {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4566826.stm|title=Iraq war and tsunami top BBC poll|date=30 December 2005|publisher=BBC World Service|access-date=26 September 2013|archive-date=2 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002213901/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4566826.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Brighton|first1=Paul|last2=Foy|first2=Dennis|title=News Values|year=2007|publisher=Sage|location=London|isbn=978-1412946001|page=44}}</ref> The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apjc.org.au/program6.html|title=Asia Pacific Journalism Centre – Home Page|access-date=24 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013035339/http://www.apjc.org.au/program6.html|archive-date=13 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand.<ref name="Press">[[Press Trust of India]] (30 December 2004) "Alert scaled down, capping day long confusion."</ref> In response, the Indian [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Minister of Home Affairs]] announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tsunami was likely along the southern Indian coast and the [[Andaman Islands|Andaman]] and [[Nicobar Islands]], even as there was no sign of turbulence in the region.<ref name="Press"/> The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads.<ref name="Tran">Tran, Tina. (30 December 2004) [[Associated Press]] "[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20041230-1108-tsunami-falsewarning.html False tsunami alarm sparks panic in Indian Ocean region.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621044212/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20041230-1108-tsunami-falsewarning.html |date=21 June 2009 }}"</ref> The announcement was a false alarm, and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement.<ref name="Tran"/> On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a self-described [[Earthquake prediction|earthquake forecaster]] who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/suspect-quake-forecast-causes-panic/|title=Suspect quake forecast causes panic|work=The Seattle Times|via=Associated Press|date=31 December 2004|access-date=17 October 2019|archive-date=16 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016170754/https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/suspect-quake-forecast-causes-panic/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Phuket after tsunami (2004).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Patong Beach in Thailand after the tsunami]]

The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political impact in Sweden. The hardest-hit country outside Asia, it lost 543 tourists in the disaster, mainly in Thailand. The [[Persson Cabinet]] was heavily criticized for its inaction.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ministers Admit Handling of Tsunami Crisis Caused Suffering – Radio Sweden|url=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/797579|access-date=15 December 2020|publisher=Sveriges Radio|date=16 February 2006|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725132232/https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/797579|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Smith Dharmasaroja]], a meteorologist who had predicted that an earthquake and [[tsunami]] "is going to occur for sure" in 1994,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seapa.org/mad-scientist-gets-belated-recognition/|title='Mad' Scientist Gets Belated Recognition|publisher=Southeast Asian Press Alliance|last=Tima|first=Raffy Jr.|date=12 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319031526/https://www.seapa.org/mad-scientist-gets-belated-recognition/|archive-date=19 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.internationalist.org/disasterforetold0501.html|title=A 'Natural Disaster' Foretold|work=The Internationalist|date=January 2005|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=26 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226132458/http://www.internationalist.org/disasterforetold0501.html|url-status=live}}</ref> was assigned the development of the Thai tsunami warning system. The [[Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System]] was formed in early 2005 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around the Indian Ocean coasts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://iotic.ioc-unesco.org/indian-ocean-tsunami-warning-system/16/what-is-iotws|title=What is IOTWS|website=IOTWS|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227214133/http://iotic.ioc-unesco.org/indian-ocean-tsunami-warning-system/16/what-is-iotws|url-status=live}}</ref>

The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It [[polar motion|displaced the North Pole]] by {{cvt|25|mm}}. It also slightly changed the shape of the Earth, specifically by decreasing Earth's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing [[Earth's rotation]] a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds.<ref name="NASA" />

The Indian Ocean Tsunami Archives were added to the UNESCO [[Memory of the World Register – Asia and the Pacific|Memory of the World register]] in 2017.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The Indian Ocean Tsunami Archives |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/indian-ocean-tsunami-archives?hub=1081 |access-date=9 September 2025 |website=UNESCO Memory of the World}}</ref> The archive consists of video, audio, and photographs.<ref name=":2" />

==Humanitarian response==
{{Main|Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake}}

[[File:German Tsunami Relief Mission Team in Mullaitivu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|German tsunami relief mission visiting [[Mullaitivu]] in Sri Lanka's [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern Province]]]]

A great deal of [[humanitarian aid]] was needed because of widespread damage to the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of particular concern due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as [[cholera]], [[diphtheria]], [[dysentery]], [[typhoid]] and [[hepatitis A]] and {{nowrap|[[hepatitis B]]}}.

There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4157947.stm|title=UN upbeat on tsunami hunger aid|publisher=BBC News|date=9 January 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=12 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412065431/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4157947.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease spreading. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ball|first1=Philip|title=Mass graves not necessary for tsunami victims|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|date=7 January 2005|doi=10.1038/news050103-10|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news050103-10|access-date=13 September 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Health Effects of Tsunamis|url=https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/tsunamis/healtheff.html|website=Natural Disasters and Severe Weather|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|access-date=13 September 2023|archive-date=31 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831082145/https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/tsunamis/healtheff.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[World Food Programme]] provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/wfp-situation-report-tsunami-crisis-indian-ocean-region-friday-4-nov-2005|title=United Nations: World Food Programme: Report on the Tsunami Crisis|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=4 November 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=12 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212221140/http://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/wfp-situation-report-tsunami-crisis-indian-ocean-region-friday-4-nov-2005|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Further|Health risks from dead bodies}}

Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions,<ref>Chapter 3, "The matter of money", in Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley, [http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668 "The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722005138/http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668 |date=22 July 2011 }}. Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA: Edward Elgar, 2010.</ref> with the governments of Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6 million aid package for Indonesia), Germany offering US$660 million, Japan offering US$500 million, Canada offering US$343 million, Norway and the Netherlands offering both US$183 million, the United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the [[World Bank]] offering US$250 million. Also, Italy offered US$95 million, increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145259.stm|title=Tsunami aid: Who's giving what|date=27 January 2005|access-date=22 April 2006|publisher=BBC News|archive-date=22 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060622072742/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145259.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Australia, India, Japan and the United States formed an ad-hoc corroborative group, and it was the origin of the [[Quadrilateral Security Dialogue]].<ref name="Madan_2017">{{cite web|url=https://warontherocks.com/2017/11/rise-fall-rebirth-quad/|date=16 November 2017|author=Tanvi Madan|title=The Rise, Fall, and Rebirth of the 'Quad'|website=War on the Rocks|access-date=22 February 2021|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213000755/https://warontherocks.com/2017/11/rise-fall-rebirth-quad/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Tsunami disaster memorial plaque in Batticaloa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Memorial dedicated to victims of the tsunami in [[Batticaloa]], Sri Lanka, written in Tamil]]

According to [[USAID]], the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On 9 February 2005, President [[George W. Bush]] asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of US$950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former president [[George H. W. Bush]], and former president [[Bill Clinton]] to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.<ref>Staff Writer. "[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/clinton-bush-tsunami-aid-helping/ Clinton, Bush: Tsunami Aid Helping]". ''[[The Early Show]]''/[[CBS News]]. 21 February 2005.</ref>

In mid-March, the [[Asian Development Bank]] reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous.<ref>Staff Writer. "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4361053.stm Tsunami aid shortfall over $4bn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050912233919/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4361053.stm |date=12 September 2005 }}." BBC News. 18 March 2005.</ref> Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom, the public donated roughly £330 million sterling (nearly US$600 million). This considerably outweighed the allocation by the government to disaster relief and reconstruction of £75 million and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Telford|first1=John|last2=Cosgrave|first2=John|date=March 2007|title=The international humanitarian system and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunamis|journal=Disasters|volume=31|issue=1|pages=1–28|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7717.2007.00337.x|pmid=17367371|bibcode=2007Disas..31....1T|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unocha.org/sites/dms/Documents/TEC_Funding_Report.pdf|title=Funding the Tsunami Response|last=Flint|first=Michael|date=July 2006|publisher=United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=12 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112080859/https://www.unocha.org/sites/dms/Documents/TEC_Funding_Report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in north-east Sri Lanka after heavy fighting between government troops and the Tamil Tiger rebels, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/aug/07/tsunami2004.internationalaidanddevelopment|title=15 tsunami aid staff executed in Sri Lanka|last1=Ramesh|first1=Randeep|date=7 August 2006|work=The Guardian|access-date=11 March 2019|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=4 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504175225/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/aug/07/tsunami2004.internationalaidanddevelopment|url-status=live}}</ref>

==  In popular culture ==

===Film and television===
* ''Children of Tsunami: No More Tears'' (2005), a 24-minute documentary
* ''The Wave That Shook the World'' (2005), educational television series documentary about the tsunami
* ''[[Tsunami: The Aftermath]]'' (2006), a two-part television miniseries about its aftermath
* ''[[Dasavathaaram]]'' (2008), a Tamil thriller film involving the tsunami
* ''Tsunami: Caught on Camera'' (2009), a TV documentary showcasing the tsunami through amateur video with survivor interviews<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitalspy.com/tv/a193489/24-million-tune-in-for-tsunami-footage/|title=2.4 million tune in for tsunami footage|website=Digital Spy|date=3 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/culture/tv-radio/article/the-turn-of-the-screw-three-men-go-to-ireland-tsunami-caught-on-camera-piers-morgans-review-of-the-year2009-unwrapped-with-miranda-hart-rwkkqxdwmct?region=global|title=The Turn of the Screw; Three Men Go to Ireland; Tsunami: Caught On Camera; Piers Morgan's Review of the Year/2009 Unwrapped with Miranda Hart|newspaper=The Times|date=19 December 2009}}</ref>
* ''[[Hereafter (film)|Hereafter]]'' (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation
* ''[[Hafalan Shalat Delisa]]'' (2011), an Indonesian movie with the tsunami as the initial incident
* ''[[The Impossible (2012 film)|The Impossible]]'' (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of [[María Belón]] and her family
* ''[[Kayal (film)|Kayal]]'' (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the tsunami
* ''Tsunami: Race Against Time'' (2024), a 20-year retrospective that chronicles some of the stories of individual heroism and tragedy<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DXTK49k3fWo |title=Tsunami: Race Against Time (Full Episode) {{!}} The Big One {{!}} National Geographic |date=2024-11-25 |last=National Geographic |access-date=2025-01-04 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

===Literature===
* ''Paint the Sky with Stars: Selected Poetry in Remembrance of the Boxing Day Tsunami 2004'' (2005) edited by [[Stephen Robert Kuta]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l21lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5|title=Paint the sky with Stars|last=Kuta|first=Stephen|publisher=Re-invention UK|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9549899-0-3|location=Rayne, Essex, England|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724140700/https://books.google.com/books?id=l21lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''The Killing Sea'' (2006), two teenagers struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 December 2006|title=Book Review: The Killing Sea by Richard Lewis|url=https://www.thetcj.org/books/book-review-the-killing-sea-by-richard-lewis|access-date=15 December 2020|website=The Therapeutic Care Journal|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126034824/https://www.thetcj.org/books/book-review-the-killing-sea-by-richard-lewis|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Wave (Deraniyagala book)|Wave]]'' (2013), a memoir by [[Sonali Deraniyagala]]
* ''On the Island'' (2012), two people stranded on a Maldives uninhabited island are rescued because of the tsunami.

===Music===
* "12/26" by [[Kimya Dawson]], about the event and the humanitarian efforts, from the perspective of a victim whose family died in the disaster.
* "Where the Wave Broke" by [[Burst (band)|Burst]], written in memory of [[Mieszko Talarczyk]], frontman of Swedish grindcore band [[Nasum]] (whom Burst bassist Jesper Liveröd also performed with), who died in the disaster, which led to Nasum's subsequent disbandment.

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia|Indonesia|Sri Lanka|Thailand|India|Malaysia|Maldives|Myanmar|Somalia|Earth sciences|2000s}}
* [[Deaths in December 2004#26|Deaths in December 2004]] – notable people killed in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
* [[List of earthquakes in 2004]]
* [[List of earthquakes in Indonesia]]
* [[List of natural disasters by death toll]]
* [[Lists of earthquakes]]
* [[List of megathrust earthquakes]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="AsiaNews-Myanmar">{{cite web|title=Myanmar is withholding true casualties figures, says Thai priest|date=4 January 2005|quote=A missioner in Ranong, a town on the border between Thailand and Myanmar, says locals talk about 600 victims. Burmese political dissidents say the same.|publisher=AsiaNews.it|url=http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=2255|access-date=12 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009053106/http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=2255|archive-date=9 October 2006}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|s=2004 Indian Ocean tsunami bulletins}}
{{Scholia|topic}}
* {{ReliefWeb-link|ts-2004-000147-idn}}
* [http://www.iris.iris.edu/sumatra/ The Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021100354/http://www.iris.iris.edu/sumatra/ |date=21 October 2015 }} – [[IRIS Consortium]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070121074902/http://asc-india.org/lib/20041226-sumatra.htm M9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake & Tsunami, 2004] – Amateur Seismic Centre (ASC) (archived 21 January 2007)
* [http://www.zoriah.net/blog/2008/12/asian-tsunami-anniversary-thailand-tsunami-then-and-now-comparison-series.html Asian Tsunami Anniversary – Thailand Tsunami Then and Now Comparison Series] – [[Zoriah Miller]]
* {{YouTube|id=2ozmwEBOmJo|title=Compilation of videos that show the moment the quake and the subsequent tsunami hit}}
* {{EQ-isc-link|7453151}}

{{Navboxes|list=
{{Tsunami2004impact}}
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{{Earthquakes in India}}
{{Earthquakes in Indonesia}}
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[[Category:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami| ]]
[[Category:2000s in Andhra Pradesh]]
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[[Category:2000s in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:2004 disasters in India]]
[[Category:2004 disasters in Indonesia]]
[[Category:2004 disasters in Sri Lanka]]
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[[Category:December 2004 in Somalia]]
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Main Page

2026-06-15T01:45:25Z

MontessoriX: Created page with "== <strong>Phuketer.com — The Community Information Hub for Phuket and the Andaman Region</strong> == Phuketer.com brings together the people, places, services, stories, and opportunities that make Phuket and the Andaman Region unique. What started as several specialized directories has now grown into one shared platform: a community-driven information center for education, churches, universities, artists, musicians, bands, airlines, recycling initiatives, companies,..."

== <strong>Phuketer.com — The Community Information Hub for Phuket and the Andaman Region</strong> ==

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Phuket province

2026-06-14T01:47:44Z

MontessoriX: 1 revision imported

{{Short description|Province of Thailand}}
{{Redirect|Phuket}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{How-to|date=June 2022}}
{{Travel guide|date=August 2025}}
{{AI-generated|date=February 2026|reason=[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phuket_province&diff=1188850491&oldid=1188454682 these 2023 edits]; note [[WP:AISIGNS]] in superficial analyses, editorializing disclaimer (consistent w/ 2023 LLM text), vocab distribution characteristic of early LLMs, verbose edit summary etc}}
}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Phuket
| native_name = ภูเก็ต
| native_name_lang = th
| nicknames = Junk Ceylon<br />Thalang
| mottoes = ไข่มุกอันดามัน สวรรค์เมืองใต้ หาดทรายสีทอง สองวีรสตรี บารมีหลวงพ่อแช่ม <br /> ("Pearl of the Andaman. Heavenly City of the South. Golden beaches. Two heroines. Virtue of Luang Pho Chaem.")
| image_flag = Flag of Phuket.svg
| image_seal = Seal Phuket (blue).png
| image_map = Thailand Phuket locator map.svg
| mapsize = frameless
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Map of Thailand highlighting Phuket province
| coordinates = {{Coord|7|53|24|N|98|23|54|E|type:adm1st_region:TH-83|display=title,inline}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Thailand]]
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Phuket (city)]]
| leader_party =
| leader_title = Governor
| leader_name = Sophon Suwannarat
| leader_party1 =
| leader_title1 = PAO President
| leader_name1 =
| area_footnotes = <ref name="AREA">{{cite web |url=https://www.forest.go.th |title=Table 2 Forest area Separate province year 2019 |publisher=Royal Forest Department |access-date=6 April 2021}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 547
| area_rank = [[Provinces of Thailand|76th]]
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="DOPA2024">{{cite web |url=https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statMenu/newStat/home.php |publisher=Department of Provincial Administration (DOPA) |title=Official statistics registration systems |access-date=10 February 2025}}</ref>
| population_total = {{increase}} 432,464<ref name="DOPA2025">{{cite web | title=ระบบสารสนเทศเพื่อการบริหาร สำนักบริหารการทะเบียน กรมการปกครอง | date=31 December 2025 | url=https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/StatMIS/#/ReportStat/2 }}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2025
| population_rank = [[Provinces of Thailand|61st]]
| population_density_km2 = 786
| population_density_rank = [[Provinces of Thailand|5th]]
| population_demonym =
| population_note =
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name="NESDB-2017">{{cite journal|title=''Gross Regional and Provincial Product, 2019 Edition''|journal=Gross Regional and Provincial Product|date=July 2019|url=https://www.nesdc.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=5628&filename=gross_regional|access-date=22 January 2020|publisher=Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council (NESDC)|language=en|issn=1686-0799|archive-date=25 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125111311/https://www.nesdc.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=5628&filename=gross_regional|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| demographics2_title1 = Total
| demographics2_info1 = [[baht]] 209 billion<br />([[US$]]7.5 billion) (2019)
| demographics_type1 = Human Achievement Index
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref name="HAI 2565">{{cite web |url=https://www.nesdc.go.th/main.php?filename=Social_HAI |department=Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council (NESDC) |title=ข้อมูลสถิติดัชนีความก้าวหน้าของคน ปี 2565 (PDF) |language=thai |trans-title=Human Achievement Index Databook year 2022 |format=PDF |page=55 |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=15 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250715002518/https://www.nesdc.go.th/main.php?filename=Social_HAI |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| demographics1_title1 = HAI (2022)
| demographics1_info1 = 0.6399 "average"<br />[[#Human achievement index 2022|Ranked 41st]]
| timezone1 = [[Time in Thailand|ICT]]
| utc_offset1 = +7
| postal_code_type = [[List of postal codes in Thailand|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 83xxx
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in Thailand|Calling code]]
| area_code = 076
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:TH|TH-83]]
| website = {{URL|phuket.go.th}}
| footnotes =
| official_name =
| translit_lang1_info3 = {{lang|zh-hant|普吉}}<br />''Phóo-kiat'' {{font|size=70%|([[Hokkien#Phonology|Tâi-lô]])}}
| translit_lang1_type3 = [[Hokkien]]
| translit_lang1_info1 = {{lang|th|ภูเก็ต}} {{font|size=70%|({{IPA|th|pʰûː.két̚|pron}})}}
| translit_lang1_type1 = [[Southern Thai language|Southern Thai]]
| translit_lang1_info2 = {{lang|ms|Bukit}} {{font|size=70%|([[Malay alphabet|Rumi]])}}<br />{{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|بوکيت}}}} {{font|size=70%|([[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]])}}
| translit_lang1_type2 = [[Malay language|Malay]]
| translit_lang1 = Other
| settlement_type = [[Provinces of Thailand|Province]]
| image_skyline = Phuket Aerial.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Phuket viewpoint
}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Phuket Provincial Administrative Organization
| native_name = องค์การบริหารส่วนจังหวัดภูเก็ต
| native_name_lang = th
| settlement_type = [[Provincial Administrative Organization]]
| government_type = [[Administrative divisions of Thailand#Local administrative divisions|Local administrative divisions]]
| governing_body = Phuket Provincial Administrative Organization
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Rewat Areerob
| website = {{URL|phuketpao.go.th}}
}}

'''Phuket''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|uː|ˈ|k|ɛ|t}} {{respell|poo|KET}}; {{langx|th|ภูเก็ต}}, {{IPA|th|pʰūː.kèt||Th-Phuket.ogg|pron}}, {{langx|ms|Bukit}} or ''Tongkah'') is one of the [[Southern Thailand|southern]] [[Provinces of Thailand|provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand]]. It consists of the island of Phuket, [[List of islands of Thailand|the country's largest island]], and another 32 smaller islands off its coast.<ref name=TAT /> Phuket lies off the west coast of mainland [[Thailand]] in the [[Andaman Sea]]. Phuket Island is connected by the [[Sarasin Bridge]] to [[Phang Nga province]] to the north. The next nearest province is [[Krabi province|Krabi]], to the east across Phang Nga Bay.

Phuket province, encompassing an area of {{cvt|547|km2}}, ranks as the second-smallest province in Thailand.<ref name="AREA"/> Historically, Phuket Island was situated on a major trading route between India and China. This strategic location led to its frequent mention of foreign ships in the [[logbook|logs]], including those from Portugal, France, the Netherlands, and England. Despite this attention from various European powers, Phuket was never colonized by any European nation.

Economically, the province's wealth was initially derived from [[tin]] and [[rubber]] production. Recently, Phuket has transitioned to [[Tourism in Thailand|tourism]] as its primary source of income. More than 100,000 foreigners are estimated to have settled in Phuket.<ref name="BBC Kelly">{{cite news |last1=Ng |first1=Kelly |title=Thailand revokes visa of Swiss man who allegedly assaulted local woman |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-68498257 |work=BBC News |date=7 March 2024}}</ref>

==Toponymy==
The name ''Phuket'' (of which the digraph ''ph'' represents an [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] {{IPA|/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|pʰ]]/}}) is derived from the corruption of the word ''Bukit'' ([[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]]: {{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|بوکيت}}}}) in [[Malay language|Malay]] which means 'hill', as this is what the island appears like from a distance. With its geographical location in the [[Malay Peninsula]], Phuket was historically inhabited by the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] Malays, before it was settled by the [[Thai people|Thai]] due to southward expansions of [[Siam]]ese kingdoms, most recently the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Phuket History - General Info |url=https://www.phuket.net/visit-phuket/about/info/history/ |website=Phuket.Net |access-date=21 November 2024 |date=2 September 2011}}</ref>

Phuket was formerly known as '''Thalang''' ({{lang|th|ถลาง}} ''Tha-Laang''), which is also derived from the old Malay ''Telong'' ([[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]]: {{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|تلوڠ}}}}) which means 'cape'. The northern district of the province, which was the location of the old capital, still uses this name. In Western sources and navigation charts, it was known as '''Junk Ceylon''' (a corruption of the Malay {{lang|ms|Tanjung Salang}}; [[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]]: {{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|تنجوڠ سالڠ}}}} 'Cape Salang').<ref name=Smithies>Smithies, Michael (2002), Three military accounts of the 1688 "Revolution" in Siam, Itineria Asiatica, Orchid Press, Bangkok, {{ISBN|974-524-005-2}}</ref>{{RP|179}}

==History==
{{main|History of Phuket}}
[[File:Audience with Narai, 1685-10-18 (b).jpg|thumb|left|upright|French ambassador [[Chevalier de Chaumont]] with King [[Narai]]]]

===16th–18th century: European contact===
[[Fernão Mendes Pinto]], a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] explorer, arrived in [[Thailand|Siam]] in 1545. His travel accounts provide insights into various parts of the country, including a detailed description of ports in the southern part of the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Kingdom]]. Pinto's records are among the earliest European accounts to mention Phuket, which he referred to as ''Junk Ceylon'' a name used by the Portuguese in their maps. This designation appears seven times in his writings. According to Pinto, Junk Ceylon was a significant port of call for [[trading vessel]]s, where they often stopped for supplies and provisions.

However, Pinto noted that during the mid-16th century, the island's prominence was in decline. This downturn was attributed to the presence of pirates and the challenging sea conditions, which made the area less favorable for merchant vessels. In addition to Phuket, Pinto's accounts also include references to other important port cities of the time, such as Patani and Ligor, the latter being the present-day Nakhon Si Thammarat.<ref name="คำว่าถลาง">{{cite web|url=http://phuketcity.info/default.asp?content=contentdetail&id=14143|title=คำว่าถลาง}}</ref>

During the 17th century, Junk Ceylon (now known as Phuket) was a focal point of international trade, particularly for its tin resources. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Kingdom of England|English]], and later the [[Kingdom of France (Early Modern)|French]] after the 1680s, competed for trading opportunities on the island. In September 1680, the [[Louis XIV's East India Company|French East India Company]]'s ship arrived at the island and departed with a cargo full of [[tin]].<ref name="คำว่าถลาง"/>

[[File:Дом семьи Чинпрача.jpg|thumb|left|Stately [[Sino-Portuguese architecture|Sino-Portuguese]] mansion in Phuket Town]]

To diminish Dutch and English influence in the region, the Siamese King [[Narai]] appointed a French medical missionary, Brother [[René Charbonneau]] of the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society|Société des Missions Étrangères]], as the governor of Junk Ceylon. Charbonneau held this position until 1685.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MznDrpiYBcwC&q=Rene+Charbonneau+Phuket&pg=PA294|title=New Terrains in Southeast Asian History|first1=Abu Talib|last1=Ahmad|first2=Liok Ee|last2=Tan|date=2 May 2018|publisher=Ohio University Press|access-date=2 May 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780896802285}}</ref>

King Narai, in 1685, granted the French a tin monopoly in Phuket, formalized through an agreement with the French ambassador, the [[Chevalier de Chaumont]].<ref name=Smithies />{{RP|179}} Subsequently, Sieur de Billy, previously the [[maître d'hôtel]] for Chaumont, was appointed as the governor of the island.<ref name=Smithies />{{RP|50}} However, following the [[Siamese Revolution (1688)|Siamese revolution]] in 1688, the French presence in Siam was significantly reduced. On 10 April 1689, [[General Desfarges|Desfarges]] led a military expedition to recapture Thalang in an attempt to re-establish French control in the region.<ref>''A History of South-east Asia'' p. 350, by Daniel George Edward Hall (1964) St. Martin's Press</ref> This occupation was short-lived, with Desfarges returning to [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] in January 1690.<ref name=Smithies />{{RP|185}}

====1785: Burmese invasion====
Before the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1785–86)#Southern theatre|Burmese assault on Thalang in 1785]], during what is known as the "Nine Armies' Wars", [[Francis Light]], a captain with the [[British East India Company]], alerted the authorities in Phuket of the impending Burmese attack.<ref>{{cite journal|first=E.H.S.|last=Simmonds|title=Francis Light and The Ladies of Thalang|journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|publisher=Cambridge University Press for SOAS, University of London|volume=38|issue=2 (208)|pages=592–619|date=December 1965|issn=0126-7353|jstor=611568}}</ref> Light's warning came at a time when the island's military governor had recently died, leading the Burmese to believe that Phuket could be easily conquered. However, [[Than Phu Ying]] [[Thao Thep Krasattri and Thao Si Sunthon|Chan]], the widow of the deceased governor, along with her sister Mook (คุณมุก), devised a strategic defense. They instructed the women of the island to dress as soldiers and position themselves along the walls of Thalang City. This ruse led the Burmese to overestimate the strength of the island's defenses, prompting them to abort their attack and eventually retreat after a month-long siege, which ended on 13 March 1785. In recognition of their bravery and ingenuity, [[Rama I|King Rama I]] bestowed the titles [[Chan and Mook|Thao Thep Kasattri and Thao Si Sunthon]] upon the two sisters, celebrating them as heroines of Phuket.<ref name=TAT>{{cite web|title=Phuket|url=http://www.tourismthailand.org/Where-to-Go/Phuket|website=Amazing Thailand|publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand|access-date=2015-01-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130705172143/http://www.tourismthailand.org/Where-to-Go/Phuket|archive-date=2013-07-05}}</ref>

The official [[Seal (emblem)|seal]] of Phuket features a depiction of the Two Heroines Monument, located along Highway 402 in [[Phuket City|Phuket]], in honor of the sisters.<ref>ตราประจำจังหวัด. Retrieved 22 Oct 2013 from http://www.phuket.go.th {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119131212/http://www.phuket.go.th/ |date=2013-11-19 }}</ref> Encircled by a traditional Thai [[kranok pattern]],<ref>กุศล เอี่ยมอรุณ, จตุพร มีสกุล. Phuket. Bangkok: Sarakadee Press.</ref> This seal has been in use since 1985.

===19th–20th centuries===
During the reign of [[Chulalongkorn|King Chulalongkorn]], also known as Rama V, from 1 October 1868 to 23 October 1910, Phuket was designated as the administrative center for the tin-producing southern provinces of Siam (now Thailand). King Chulalongkorn's tenure is noted for the modernization of the nation, encompassing governmental and social reforms, as well as negotiations involving territorial concessions to the British and French. Amid the pressures of Western expansionism during this period, King Chulalongkorn's leadership is credited with maintaining Siam's sovereignty and averting colonization.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

In 1876, there was a significant uprising among Chinese laborers working in the tin mines of Phuket and its neighboring provinces. The unrest was reportedly influenced by the declining prices of tin and the government's stringent fiscal policies at the time.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Phuket underwent another administrative change in 1933 when ''[[Monthon]] Phuket'' (มณฑลภูเก็ต) was dissolved, leading to Phuket's establishment as a separate province.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finearts.go.th/trangarchives/หนังสืออิเล็กทรอนิกส์/book/28-121/2-2013-01-26-21-11-08.html|title=จดหมายเหตุรายวันจดรายงานราชการของข้าหลวงเทศาภิบาลมณฑลภูเก็ต ร.ศ. 121}}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>

===21st century (2001–present)===
On [[Boxing Day|26 December]] 2004, Phuket, along with other areas on Thailand's west coast, experienced significant devastation due to a [[tsunami]] triggered by an [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|earthquake]] off the coast of [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]. This natural disaster had far-reaching impacts, resulting in approximately 5,300 fatalities in Thailand and causing extensive damage and loss of life across South and [[Southeast Asia]], totaling around two hundred thousand deaths.<ref name="Puavilai-2005">{{cite web |last1=Puavilai |first1=Wilai |title=Tsunami disaster in Thailand, ICU experience |url=https://www.who.int/hac/events/tsunamiconf/presentations/2_5_mass_casualty_hospital_care_paovilai_ppt.pdf |website=World Health Organisation (WHO)|publisher=WHO Tsunami & Health Situation Report 31|access-date=9 September 2018 |date=2005-01-29}}</ref> In Phuket, around 250 individuals, including foreign tourists, were reported deceased. Major beaches on Phuket's west coast, including Kamala, [[Patong]], Karon, and Kata, suffered substantial damage, as did some resorts and communities along the island's southern shores. Notably, the [[Takua Pa District]] in [[Phang Nga province]], north of Phuket, was among Thailand's most severely affected areas, with significant casualties, including a considerable number of Burmese laborers.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chankaew |first1=Prapan |last2=Sagolj |first2=Damir |title=Hundreds Of Victims Of The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Have Still Not Been Identified |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/r-exclusive-thai-police-see-little-hope-of-putting-names-to-about-370-tsunami-victims-2014-12 |access-date=9 September 2018 |work=Business Insider |agency=Reuters |date=2014-12-23}}</ref><ref name="Irrawaddy-2005">{{cite news |last1=Tang |first1=Alisa |title=Forgotten Burmese Victims of Tsunami Rebuild Thai Resorts |url=http://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=4744&page=1 |access-date=9 September 2018 |work=The Irrawaddy |agency=AP |date=2005-06-27}}</ref> In response to the tsunami disaster, Thailand initiated the installation of a series of tsunami-detection buoys in December 2006. These buoys, part of a regional warning system in the [[Indian Ocean]], are located approximately {{convert|1,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} offshore, positioned between [[Thailand]] and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2006/s2749.htm|title=NOAA Provides First Tsunami Detection Buoy for the Indian Ocean|publisher=NOAA|access-date=2012-06-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306095317/http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2006/s2749.htm|archive-date=2013-03-06}}</ref>

In early 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand|COVID-19 pandemic]] reached Phuket. By March of that year, Phuket and other regions in [[Southern Thailand]] implemented lockdown measures, including [[stay-at-home order]]s, a mandate for [[mask mandate|mask-wearing]], and [[social distancing]] protocols. While these measures were relatively effective in controlling the spread of the virus, they had a significant impact on Phuket's tourism-dependent economy. By 2022, Thailand transitioned towards the [[Endemic phase of COVID-19|post-pandemic phase]], marking the end of the country's intensive COVID-19 response measures.{{citation needed|date=April 2025}}

The [[murder of Nicole Sauvain-Weisskopf]], a Swiss national on holiday, occurred in Phuket in August 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58141926|title = Thailand man charged over death of Swiss tourist near waterfall|work = BBC News|date = 9 August 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Mural of King Rama 9 - Dibuk Road, Phuket.jpg|thumb|Mural of King Rama 9 on the Dibuk Road - Phuket]]

==Symbols==
The provincial slogan is "Pearl of the Andaman. Heavenly City of the South. Golden beaches. Two heroines. Virtue of Luang Pho Chaem." The provincial seal and flag show the monument of the heroic sisters [[Thao Thep Krasattri and Thao Si Sunthon]].

[[List of provincial trees of Thailand|The provincial tree]] is ''[[Pterocarpus indicus]]'', and the provincial flower is ''[[Bougainvillea]]'' sp. Phuket is an important [[pearl]] cultivation area and is also nicknamed Pearl of the Andaman. The [[pearl oyster]] ''[[Pinctada maxima]]'' is the provincial aquatic animal.

==Geography==
{{Infobox Islands
| name = Phuket
| image = PhuketMap.png
| image_caption = Map of Phuket (beaches in brown)
| image_size =
| locator_map =
| map_custom =
| native_name =
| native_name_link =
| nickname =
| location = [[Andaman Sea]] (West)<br />[[Strait of Malacca]] (East)
| coordinates = {{coord|7|53|24|N|98|23|54|E|display=inline}}
| archipelago =
| total_islands =
| major_islands =
| area_km2 = 576
| length_km = 50
| width_km = 20
| highest_mount = Khao Mai Thao Sip Song
| elevation_m = 529
| country = {{flag|Thailand}}
| country_admin_divisions_title = [[Provinces of Thailand|Province]]
| country_admin_divisions = {{flagu|Phuket}}
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 = [[Districts of Thailand|District]]
| country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Thalang district|Thalang]] (North)<br />[[Kathu district|Kathu]] (West)<br />[[Mueang Phuket district|Mueang Phuket]] (Southeast)
| country_admin_divisions_title_2 =
| country_admin_divisions_2 =
| country_largest_city =
| country_largest_city_population =
| population = 386,605
| population_as_of = 2015
| density_km2 = 1,042
| ethnic_groups =
| additional_info =
}}

Phuket Island (Ko Phuket), the largest island in Thailand, is situated in the southern part of the country, within the [[Andaman Sea]]. The island is characterized by its mountainous terrain, with a mountain range extending from the north to the south along its western side. This range is part of the larger [[Phuket mountain range]], which spans approximately {{cvt|440|km}} from the [[Kra Isthmus]].

The island's highest point is traditionally cited as Khao Mai Thao Sip Song, with an altitude of {{cvt|529|m}} above sea level. However, there are reports{{by whom|date=December 2023}} suggesting the presence of an unnamed peak in the Kamala Hills, behind Kathu Waterfall, which may reach an elevation of 542 meters above sea level.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

As per the 2000 census, Phuket's population was 249,446, which increased to 525,709 by the 2010 census.<ref name="Census 2010">{{cite web|title=Thailand & Phuket Census 2010|url=https://www.hoteldealsphuket.com/Southtern_7_Statistical.pdf|website=National Statistical Office Thailand|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> This marked the highest growth rate of all provinces in Thailand, averaging 7.4 percent annually. The current population of Phuket is estimated to be around 600,000,<ref>[http://www.citypopulation.de/php/thailand-admin.php Administrative Divisions of Thailand: Provinces and Districts – Statistics and Maps by City Population] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107061912/http://www.citypopulation.de/php/thailand-admin.php |date=2012-01-07 }}. Citypopulation.de (2011-11-12). Retrieved on 2013-08-25.</ref> comprising a diverse mix of migrants, international expatriates, Thais registered in other provinces, and local inhabitants. However, the official registered population, which counts only those included in a ''thabian ban'' or house registration book, was reported as 360,905 at the end of 2012. This figure does not encompass all residents, as many are not registered in the house registration system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/y_stat55.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-10-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20131027170754/http://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/y_stat55.html |archive-date=2013-10-27 }}</ref> In October 2025, Phuket MP Chalermpong Sangdee told Parliament that Phuket's current resident population is estimated to be around 2,000,000 people.<ref name="thephuketnews.com">{{cite web | title=Phuket MP calls for urgent action to resolve water shortages | date=17 October 2025 | url=https://www.thephuketnews.com/phuket-mp-calls-for-urgent-action-to-resolve-water-shortages-97983.php }}</ref>

Phuket Island, situated approximately {{convert|863|km}} south of [[Bangkok]], spans an area of {{convert|543|km2}}, not accounting for its smaller islets. It is accompanied by several other islands including [[Ko Lone]] ({{convert|4.77|km2}}), [[Ko Maprao]] ({{convert|3.7|km2}}), [[Ko Naka Yai]] ({{convert|2.08|km2}}), [[Ko Racha Noi]] ({{convert|3.06|km2}}), [[Ko Racha Yai]] ({{convert|4.5|km2}}), and [[Ko Sire]], the second largest, covering {{convert|8.8|km2}}.

The island measures {{convert|48|km}} in length from north to south, and its width extends to {{convert|21|km}}.<ref name="Phuket Town Treasure Map">[http://www.phuket-maps.com/treasure-map.htm Phuket Town Treasure Map] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128204724/http://www.phuket-maps.com/treasure-map.htm |date=2010-01-28 }} www.phuket-maps.com</ref> Around 60% of Phuket Island is covered with forests, rubber, and palm oil plantations. Its west coast is adorned with several sandy beaches, while the east coast features predominantly muddy beaches. The southernmost tip of the island is marked by Laem Phromthep ({{langx|th|แหลมพรหมเทพ}} "Brahma's Cape"), known for being a popular viewpoint.

In the northern, more mountainous part of the island, the Khao Phra Thaeo No-Hunting Area spans over {{cvt|20|km2|mi2}}, dedicated to preserving [[rainforest]] ecosystems. This reserve's three highest peaks include Khao Prathiu ({{convert|384|m}}), [[Khao Bang Pae]] ({{convert|388|m}}), and [[Khao Phara]] ({{convert|422|m}}). Additionally, the [[Sirinat National Park]] on the northwest coast, established in 1981, encompasses an area of {{cvt|90|km2|mi2}}, including {{cvt|68|km2|mi2}} of marine area. This park is significant for encompassing the Nai Yang Beach, a nesting site for [[sea turtle]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sirinart National Park|url=http://www.tourismthailand.org/Sirinart-National-Park|website=Amazing Thailand|publisher=Tourist Authority of Thailand (TAT)|access-date=2015-01-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115192755/http://www.tourismthailand.org/Sirinart-National-Park|archive-date=2015-01-15}}</ref> The total forested area of Phuket is approximately {{convert|113|km²|abbr=on}}, accounting for 20.6 percent of the province's total area.<ref name="AREA"/>

{{clear}}
{|role="presentation" class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|'''Location protected areas of Phuket'''
| 
|-
|[[File:Map Phuket Protected Areas.png|thumb|left|700px|{{resize|150%|'''      Phuket protected areas'''}}]]
{| class= "wikitable" style= "width:30%; display:inline-table;"
|-
| style="width:3%; background:#00FF00;"| 
| style="width:27%;"|'''National park'''
|-
|  1 ||[[Sirinat National Park|Sirinat]]
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:33%; display:inline-table;"
|-
| style="width:3%; background:#FDE910;"| 
| style="width:30%;"|'''Non-hunting area'''
|-
|  2 ||Khao Phra Thaeo
|-
|}
|}
{{clear}}

<gallery widths="200" heights="160">
File:In Phuket when the Sun goes down, the City starts to rock! (4973896467).jpg|Patong Beach is the most popular and well-developed beach on Phuket Island
File:Phuket, Thailand (Unsplash xE5vmelyM6k).jpg|[[Jellyfish]] at Phuket
File:Bryde´s whale.jpg|[[Bryde's whale]] swims off the Islands
File:Small crab on sand beach (Unsplash).jpg|Small crab on the sand beach at Phuket
File:Sunset NaiYang.jpg|Sunset on Nai Yang beach, northern Phuket
File:Thailand 2010 - panoramio (1).jpg|View from [[Abhakara Kiartivongse|Krom Luang Chumpon]] monument
</gallery>

===Climate===
Phuket, characterized by a [[tropical monsoon climate]] under the [[Köppen climate classification]], experiences relatively uniform temperatures throughout the year due to its equatorial location. The region typically observes an average annual high temperature around {{convert|32|°C|0}} and an average annual low around {{convert|25|°C|0}}. The climate of Phuket is divided into two distinct seasons: a dry season extending from December through March, and a wet season that spans the remaining eight months. Notably, even during the dry season, Phuket is subject to occasional rainfall.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} On average, the city receives approximately {{convert|2200|mm|0}} of rainfall annually.

{{Weather box|width=auto
|location = Phuket ([[Mueang Phuket district]]) (1981–2010)
|collapsed= Yes
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 36.3
|Feb record high C = 36.7
|Mar record high C = 37.8
|Apr record high C = 37.8
|May record high C = 37.8
|Jun record high C = 35.8
|Jul record high C = 35.0
|Aug record high C = 35.5
|Sep record high C = 35.0
|Oct record high C = 35.3
|Nov record high C = 34.8
|Dec record high C = 34.2
|year record high C = 37.8
|Jan high C = 32.7
|Feb high C = 33.6
|Mar high C = 34.0
|Apr high C = 33.9
|May high C = 32.8
|Jun high C = 32.4
|Jul high C = 32.0
|Aug high C = 32.0
|Sep high C = 31.5
|Oct high C = 31.5
|Nov high C = 31.7
|Dec high C = 31.7
|year high C = 32.5
|Jan mean C = 28.1
|Feb mean C = 28.7
|Mar mean C = 29.2
|Apr mean C = 29.4
|May mean C = 28.8
|Jun mean C = 28.6
|Jul mean C = 28.2
|Aug mean C = 28.1
|Sep mean C = 27.5
|Oct mean C = 27.4
|Nov mean C = 27.7
|Dec mean C = 27.6
|year mean C = 28.3
|Jan low C = 24.5
|Feb low C = 24.9
|Mar low C = 25.4
|Apr low C = 25.8
|May low C = 25.6
|Jun low C = 25.5
|Jul low C = 25.1
|Aug low C = 25.3
|Sep low C = 24.6
|Oct low C = 24.5
|Nov low C = 24.7
|Dec low C = 24.4
|year low C = 25.0
|Jan record low C = 19.5
|Feb record low C = 18.6
|Mar record low C = 20.0
|Apr record low C = 20.5
|May record low C = 21.2
|Jun record low C = 21.9
|Jul record low C = 20.5
|Aug record low C = 21.1
|Sep record low C = 21.1
|Oct record low C = 20.5
|Nov record low C = 20.3
|Dec record low C = 18.4
|year record low C = 18.4
|rain colour = green
|Jan rain mm = 30.3
|Feb rain mm = 23.9
|Mar rain mm = 73.5
|Apr rain mm = 142.9
|May rain mm = 259.5
|Jun rain mm = 213.3
|Jul rain mm = 258.2
|Aug rain mm = 286.8
|Sep rain mm = 361.2
|Oct rain mm = 320.1
|Nov rain mm = 177.4
|Dec rain mm = 72.4
|Jan rain days = 4.6
|Feb rain days = 3.1
|Mar rain days = 6.7
|Apr rain days = 11.8
|May rain days = 18.8
|Jun rain days = 18.2
|Jul rain days = 19.6
|Aug rain days = 19.0
|Sep rain days = 22.1
|Oct rain days = 22.5
|Nov rain days = 15.4
|Dec rain days = 9.3
|year rain days = 171.1
|Jan humidity = 70
|Feb humidity = 69
|Mar humidity = 71
|Apr humidity = 75
|May humidity = 79
|Jun humidity = 79
|Jul humidity = 79
|Aug humidity = 79
|Sep humidity = 82
|Oct humidity = 82
|Nov humidity = 79
|Dec humidity = 75
|year humidity = 77
|Jan sun = 235.6
|Feb sun = 214.7
|Mar sun = 204.6
|Apr sun = 183.0
|May sun = 151.9
|Jun sun = 150.0
|Jul sun = 151.9
|Aug sun = 151.9
|Sep sun = 108.0
|Oct sun = 145.7
|Nov sun = 174.0
|Dec sun = 198.4
|year sun =
|Jand sun = 7.6
|Febd sun = 7.6
|Mard sun = 6.6
|Aprd sun = 6.1
|Mayd sun = 4.9
|Jund sun = 5.0
|Juld sun = 4.9
|Augd sun = 4.9
|Sepd sun = 3.6
|Octd sun = 4.7
|Novd sun = 5.8
|Decd sun = 6.4
|yeard sun = 5.7
|source 1 = Thai Meteorological Department<ref name=TMD1>{{cite web
|url = http://climate.tmd.go.th/content/file/75
|title = Climatological Data for the Period 1981–2010
|publisher = Thai Meteorological Department
|access-date = 8 August 2016
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160731044249/http://climate.tmd.go.th/content/file/75
|archive-date = 31 July 2016
}}</ref>{{rp|27}}
|source 2 = Office of Water Management and Hydrology, Royal Irrigation Department (sun and humidity)<ref name=RID>{{cite web
|url = http://water.rid.go.th/hwm/cropwater/CWRdata/ETo/ETo_PenMon_2554.pdf
|title = ปริมาณการใช้น้ำของพืชอ้างอิงโดยวิธีของ Penman Monteith (Reference Crop Evapotranspiration by Penman Monteith)
|publisher = Office of Water Management and Hydrology, Royal Irrigation Department
|language = th
|access-date = 8 August 2016
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161201211547/http://water.rid.go.th/hwm/cropwater/CWRdata/ETo/ETo_PenMon_2554.pdf
|archive-date = 1 December 2016
}}</ref>{{rp|116}}
}}

{{Weather box|width=auto
|location = Phuket ([[Phuket International Airport]]) (1981–2010)
|collapsed=yes
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 35.5
|Feb record high C = 38.5
|Mar record high C = 37.5
|Apr record high C = 37.6
|May record high C = 37.7
|Jun record high C = 35.0
|Jul record high C = 34.2
|Aug record high C = 34.8
|Sep record high C = 34.4
|Oct record high C = 33.9
|Nov record high C = 36.1
|Dec record high C = 33.5
|year record high C = 38.5
|Jan high C = 32.1
|Feb high C = 33.1
|Mar high C = 33.6
|Apr high C = 33.4
|May high C = 32.2
|Jun high C = 31.7
|Jul high C = 31.3
|Aug high C = 31.2
|Sep high C = 30.7
|Oct high C = 30.8
|Nov high C = 31.1
|Dec high C = 31.2
|year high C = 31.9
|Jan mean C = 27.0
|Feb mean C = 27.7
|Mar mean C = 28.3
|Apr mean C = 28.6
|May mean C = 28.4
|Jun mean C = 28.3
|Jul mean C = 27.9
|Aug mean C = 28.0
|Sep mean C = 27.3
|Oct mean C = 27.0
|Nov mean C = 26.9
|Dec mean C = 26.7
|year mean C = 27.7
|Jan low C = 22.6
|Feb low C = 22.8
|Mar low C = 23.4
|Apr low C = 24.2
|May low C = 24.7
|Jun low C = 24.9
|Jul low C = 24.6
|Aug low C = 24.9
|Sep low C = 24.2
|Oct low C = 23.8
|Nov low C = 23.5
|Dec low C = 22.9
|year low C = 23.9
|Jan record low C = 17.9
|Feb record low C = 17.1
|Mar record low C = 18.5
|Apr record low C = 20.2
|May record low C = 19.5
|Jun record low C = 19.6
|Jul record low C = 20.2
|Aug record low C = 18.9
|Sep record low C = 19.0
|Oct record low C = 20.8
|Nov record low C = 17.0
|Dec record low C = 18.9
|year record low C = 17.0
|rain colour = green
|Jan rain mm = 36.2
|Feb rain mm = 27.2
|Mar rain mm = 100.3
|Apr rain mm = 154.0
|May rain mm = 281.5
|Jun rain mm = 256.8
|Jul rain mm = 261.5
|Aug rain mm = 329.8
|Sep rain mm = 399.1
|Oct rain mm = 353.4
|Nov rain mm = 207.8
|Dec rain mm = 67.4
|Jan rain days = 6.2
|Feb rain days = 4.1
|Mar rain days = 7.9
|Apr rain days = 12.9
|May rain days = 20.2
|Jun rain days = 18.9
|Jul rain days = 20.3
|Aug rain days = 20.2
|Sep rain days = 22.8
|Oct rain days = 23.3
|Nov rain days = 16.6
|Dec rain days = 10.0
|year rain days = 183.4
|Jan humidity = 76
|Feb humidity = 74
|Mar humidity = 76
|Apr humidity = 80
|May humidity = 82
|Jun humidity = 82
|Jul humidity = 82
|Aug humidity = 82
|Sep humidity = 84
|Oct humidity = 86
|Nov humidity = 83
|Dec humidity = 79
|year humidity = 81
|Jan sun = 198.4
|Feb sun = 180.8
|Mar sun = 201.5
|Apr sun = 183.0
|May sun = 155.0
|Jun sun = 150.0
|Jul sun = 155.0
|Aug sun = 114.7
|Sep sun = 108.0
|Oct sun = 108.5
|Nov sun = 138.0
|Dec sun = 179.8
|year sun =
|Jand sun = 6.4
|Febd sun = 6.4
|Mard sun = 6.5
|Aprd sun = 6.1
|Mayd sun = 5.0
|Jund sun = 5.0
|Juld sun = 5.0
|Augd sun = 3.7
|Sepd sun = 3.6
|Octd sun = 3.5
|Novd sun = 4.6
|Decd sun = 5.8
|yeard sun = 5.1
|source 1 = Thai Meteorological Department<ref name=TMD1/>{{rp|27–28}}
|source 2 = Office of Water Management and Hydrology, Royal Irrigation Department (sun and humidity)<ref name=RID/>{{rp|117}}
}}

==Demographics==
In Thailand, [[Buddhism]] is the predominant religion, with a notable presence in Phuket. Approximately 20% of Phuket's population adheres to [[Islam]], primarily descendants of the island's original [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian inhabitants]]. This [[Muslim]] community includes a substantial number of individuals of [[Malay people|Malay]] descent.<ref>{{cite book|title=To Venture Further|publisher=Sheridan House, Inc.|year=1999|page=53|author=Tristan Jones|isbn=1-57409-064-X|author-link=Tristan Jones}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Siam: A Handbook of Practical, Commercial, and Political Information|url=https://archive.org/details/siamhandbookofpr00grah_0|publisher=F. G. Browne|year=1913|pages=[https://archive.org/details/siamhandbookofpr00grah_0/page/115 115], 124|author=Walter Armstrong Graham}}</ref> The ethnic composition of Phuket also includes a significant proportion of people of [[Thai Chinese|Chinese ancestry]], many descendants of tin miners who migrated to the island during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|year=2000|page=108|author=Annabelle Gambe|isbn=3-8258-4386-6}}</ref> The [[Peranakan]] community, locally referred to as "Phuket Babas", forms a distinct part of this Chinese demographic, with historical links to the Peranakans of [[Penang]] and [[Malacca]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=D'Oliveiro|first1=Michael|title=The Peranakan Trail|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/story/?file=%2f2007%2f3%2f31%2flifefocus%2f17061503&sec=lifefocus|website=The Star Online|publisher=The Star (Malaysia)|access-date=2015-01-16|date=2007-03-31|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705155808/http://www.thestar.com.my/story/?file=%2f2007%2f3%2f31%2flifefocus%2f17061503&sec=lifefocus|archive-date=2015-07-05}}</ref>

According to the preliminary results of the 2010 census, Phuket had a population of 525,018, including approximately 115,881 expatriates, accounting for 21.1% of the total population. However, these figures may not be entirely accurate, as the Phuket Provincial Employment Office has recorded over 64,000 legally residing workers from Burma (Myanmar), Laos, and Cambodia, suggesting a higher actual population.<ref>[https://thethaiger.com/news/phuket/Phuket-population-525000-Census Phuket News: Phuket population "only" 525,000: Census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512153211/http://www.phuketgazette.net/archives/articles/2011/article10280.html |date=2011-05-12 }}. Phuketgazette.net. Retrieved on 2013-08-25.</ref> The Thai census of 2015 reported a population of 386,605 for Phuket.
<ref>{{cite web|title=รายงานสถิติจำนวนประชากรและบ้านประจำปี พ.ศ.2558|url=http://stat.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statTDD/views/showProvinceData.php|website=Department of Provincial Administration (DOPA)|access-date=28 August 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908043150/http://stat.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statTDD/views/showProvinceData.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref>

During peak tourist seasons, Phuket experiences a significant influx of visitors, with the population increasing to over one million.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}} Tourists, predominantly from Western Europe, China, Russia, and the United States, are drawn to the island around Christmas, contributing to this seasonal population increase.

===Religion===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Religion in Phuket (2017)<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.phuket.go.th/webpk/file_data/gastronomy/01.pdf |title= Phuket: City of Gastronomy during 2017–2021 |author= |date= 2017 |work= Phuket Province |publisher= |access-date= 15 July 2021 |archive-date= 14 April 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210414040507/https://www.phuket.go.th/webpk/file_data/gastronomy/01.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref>
|label2 = [[Islam]]
|value2 = 26.65
|color2 = Green
|label3 = [[Christianity]]
|value3 = 0.98
|color3 = Blue
|label1 = [[Buddhism]]
|value1 = 68.61
|color1 = Yellow
|label4 = Other
|value4 = 3.76
|color4 = Black
}}
{{clear}}

==Administrative divisions==
===Provincial government===
Phuket is divided into three districts (''[[Districts of Thailand|amphoe]]''), which are further divided into 17 subdistricts (''[[tambon]]''), and 103 villages (''[[muban]]'').
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
| rowspan="5" |[[File:Districts Phuket.svg|thumb|200px]]
|-
! No.
! Name
! Thai
! Malay
|-
|1.||[[Mueang Phuket district|Mueang Phuket]]|| เมืองภูเก็ต || Bukit
|-
|2.||[[Kathu district|Kathu]]|| กะทู้ || Pantai Berbatu
|-
|3.||[[Thalang district|Thalang]] || ถลาง || Telong
|}

===Local government===
As of 26 November 2019 there are:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dla.go.th/work/abt/province.jsp |title=Number of local government organizations by province |date=26 November 2019 |website=dla.go.th |publisher=Department of Local Administration (DLA) |access-date=10 December 2019 |quote=41 Phuket: 1 PAO, 1 City mun., 2 Town mun., 9 Subdistrict mun., 6 SAO. |archive-date=26 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191126025045/http://www.dla.go.th/work/abt/province.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref> one Phuket Provincial Administration Organisation (''{{lang|th-Latn|ongkan borihan suan changwat}}'') and 12 municipal (''thesaban'') areas in the province. Phuket has city (''[[thesaban nakhon]]'') status. Kathu and Patong have town (''[[thesaban mueang]]'') status. Further 9 subdistrict municipalities (''[[thesaban tambon]]''). The non-municipal areas are administered by six Subdistrict Administrative Organisations (SAO; ''ongkan borihan suan tambon'').

<gallery widths="175px" heights="200px">
File:Phuket Thailand Landsat 7 Photo 2000.jpg|Satellite photo, Dec 2000
File:Karte Golf von Thailand - Phuket.png
</gallery>

==Economy==
[[File:Muelle de Ao Por, Phuket, Tailandia, 2013-08-20, DD 06.JPG|thumbnail|upright=1.15|Ao Por port in Phuket]]
[[File:Phuket (Before).tif|thumbnail|right|[[Andaman Sea]]]]

[[Tin mining]] played a pivotal role in the economy of Phuket from the 16th century until its decline in the 20th century. Today, the economy of Phuket is primarily supported by two sectors: [[rubber tree]] plantations, contributing significantly to Thailand's status as the world's leading rubber producer,<ref>{{cite news|title=Top rubber producers again eye joint moves to arrest sliding prices|date=6 February 2014|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rubber-producers-idUSL3N0LB1CP20140207|website=Reuters|access-date=12 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912182926/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/07/rubber-producers-idUSL3N0LB1CP20140207|archive-date=2014-09-12}}</ref> and [[tourism]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.phuket.net/visit-phuket/about/info/economy/|title=Phuket's Economy|date=2 September 2011 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202081057/http://www.phuket.net/visit-phuket/about/info/economy/|archive-date=2017-02-02}}</ref>

The development of Phuket's tourism sector began in earnest in the 1980s, with the west coast beaches, notably Patong, Karon, and Kata, emerging as key destinations. Following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|2004 tsunami]], efforts were made to restore all affected buildings and attractions. The island has since undergone extensive development, evidenced by the construction of new hotels, apartments, and houses.

Phuket is also a major hub for luxury yacht sales and charter in Southeast Asia, with several international yacht brokerages operating from the island's marinas along the Andaman coast.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SLV Marine - Luxury Yachts for Sale in Phuket, Thailand {{!}} Premier Yacht Brokerage |url=https://www.slv-marine.com/ |access-date=2026-03-13 |website=SLV Marine - Luxury Yachts for Sale in Phuket, Thailand {{!}} Premier Yacht Brokerage |language=en}}</ref>

In a 2005 report by ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', Phuket was listed among the top five global retirement destinations. The island's appeal as a retirement location is attributed to various factors, including its climate, lifestyle, and amenities.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/07/11/8265242/index.htm | work=CNN | title=Paradise Found: Where to Retire Abroad | date=July 11, 2005 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212113054/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/07/11/8265242/index.htm | archive-date=February 12, 2009 }}</ref>

The year 2017 marked a significant influx of tourists to Phuket, with the island welcoming approximately 10 million visitors, predominantly from overseas. China was noted as the primary source of these foreign tourists. Tourism in Phuket played a crucial role in Thailand's economy, generating about 385 billion [[Thai baht|baht]] in revenue, nearly 14% of the nation's total earnings of 2.77 trillion baht in that year.<ref name="BP-20180716">{{cite news |last1=Sritama |first1=Suchat |title=A Fatal Wake-up Call |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/tourism-and-transport/1504234/a-fatal-wake-up-call |access-date=16 July 2018 |work=Bangkok Post |date=16 July 2018}}</ref>

In the first half of 2019, Phuket experienced a decrease in tourist arrivals, which impacted the local hospitality industry. This trend was marked by reduced hotel occupancy rates and intensified price competition among accommodations. Consequently, there was a noted decrease in revenue per available room ([[RevPAR]]). Analysts attribute this downturn to a combination of fewer tourists and an oversupply of hotel rooms. However, despite the decline in tourist numbers, the [[Tourism Authority of Thailand]] (TAT) reported a 3.1% increase in tourism revenues for the same period.

Estimates of the total number of hotel rooms in Phuket vary. According to Oxfam, Phuket has approximately 60,000 hotel rooms to cater to its 9.1 million annual visitors.<ref name=Oxfam-2017>{{cite book|last1=Sarosi|first1=Diana|title=Tourism's Dirty Secret; The Exploitation of Hotel Housekeepers|date=October 2017|publisher=Oxfam Canada|url=https://www.oxfam.ca/sites/default/files/file_attachments/tourisms_dirty_secret_-_oxfam_canada_report_-_oct_17_2017.pdf|access-date=18 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019010015/https://www.oxfam.ca/sites/default/files/file_attachments/tourisms_dirty_secret_-_oxfam_canada_report_-_oct_17_2017.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2017}}</ref>{{RP|7}} Contrasting figures were presented in reports by the Bangkok Post in September 2019. One report indicated that Phuket has around 600 hotels comprising 40,000 rooms.<ref name="BP-20190913">{{cite news |last1=Worraachaddejchai |first1=Dusida |title=Mice held back by Phuket's regulations |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1748709/mice-held-back-by-phukets-regulations |access-date=13 September 2019 |work=Bangkok Post |date=13 September 2019}}</ref> A separate report from three weeks earlier estimated 93,941 available hotel rooms, excluding villas and hostels, with an expectation of an additional 15,000 rooms by 2024. These varying figures highlight the difficulty in accurately quantifying the total number of hotel accommodations in the region.<ref name=BP-20190805>{{cite news |last1=Kasemsuk |first1=Narumon |title=Phuket loses lustre |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1724759/phuket-loses-lususiness/1724759/phuket-loses-lustre |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Bangkok Post |date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

In 2023, Phuket experienced a 15% increase in property prices with demand driven by an influx of Russian and Ukrainian nationals.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Russians flock to Thailand as tourism rebounds from collapse |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/general/2470937/russians-flock-to-thailand-as-tourism-rebounds-from-collapse |access-date=2024-02-23 |work=Bangkok Post |date=28 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The number of luxury villas launched in Phuket during the first six months of 2023 surged 12 times to 541 units worth a total 29.6 billion baht, from 45 units valued at 886 million baht the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Century 21 Phuket Real Estate Market Outlook 2023 - 2024 |url=https://c21phuket.com/blog/century-21-phuket-real-estate-market-outlook-2023-2024 |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=c21phuket.com |language=en}}</ref>

As Thailand moves to [[Gambling in Thailand|legalize gambling]], Phuket is expected to be one of the locations of an [[integrated resort]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.casino.org/news/bangkok-phuket-among-cities-for-initial-thailand-casinos/|title=Bangkok, Phuket Among Cities for Initial Thailand Casinos|first=Todd|last=Shriber|date=March 14, 2025|website=Casino.org}}</ref>

==Transportation==
; Air
[[File:Thai Airways B747-400 HS-TGZ Phuket.jpg|thumbnail|right|Plane spotting at Mai Khao Beach in Phuket]]

[[Phuket International Airport|Phuket International Airport (HKT)]] initiated an expansion project in September 2012, with an allocated budget of 5.7 billion baht (approximately US$185.7 million). This expansion, which was scheduled for completion by 14 February 2016, aimed to increase the airport's annual passenger handling capacity from 6.5 million to 12.5 million and included the construction of a new international terminal.<ref name="An evergreen dream">{{cite web|title=An evergreen dream|url=http://www.ttgmice.com/magazine/?ID=32113&term_id=124&issues=229|publisher=TTGmice|access-date=18 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222259/http://www.ttgmice.com/magazine/?ID=32113&term_id=124&issues=229|archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> The airport has regular flights to [[Bangkok]], towns of southern Thailand, and George Town, Malaysia.

; Rail
Phuket does not have a direct rail link. The nearest train stations are in [[Surat Thani railway station|Surat Thani]] and [[Khiri Rat Nikhom railway station|Khiri Rat Nikhom]], approximately {{cvt|230|km|mi}} away.

; City transit
[[Songthaew]]s provide an economical means of transport between towns and various beaches. There are also conventional bus services, and motorcycle taxis are numerous in the main town and the Patong Beach area. Traditional [[tuk-tuks]] have largely been replaced by small vans, predominantly red, with some in yellow or green. Taxi services in Phuket generally operate with fixed rates{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}. For travel from the airport to Phuket Town and major beaches, privately operated buses are available. Additionally, the ride-share service [[Grab (company)|Grab]] is frequently recommended by locals as a convenient transportation option.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

[[File:Street sign in Phuket, Thailand.jpg|thumb|upright|Kata Road]]
; Bus
Phuket's Bus Station 2 BKS Terminal serves as the main link for transportation to and from Bangkok, as well as other major cities and provinces in Thailand, and is approximately four kilometres north of Phuket's town center and port area. It provides connections to various local transport options, including tuk-tuks, metered taxis, motorcycle taxis, songthaews, and local buses, facilitating access to the island's numerous beaches and resorts. Daily scheduled bus services by private and government companies originate from Bangkok's Mo Chit and Southern Terminal stations.

; Tram
In 2018, the [[Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand]] (MRTA) announced plans for the development of a tram network in Phuket, with bidding set to begin in 2020. This project, estimated at 39 billion baht, forms part of the government's private-public-partnership (PPP) initiative, aimed at accelerating its implementation. The proposed tram network, spanning approximately {{cvt|60|km|mi}} with 23 stations, is designed to extend from [[Takua Thung District]] in [[Phang Nga province]] to [[Chalong]] in Phuket. The initial phase of the project plans to connect Phuket International Airport with Chalong, covering a distance of around {{cvt|40|km|mi}}, with a projected completion timeline of three years.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bidding date set for 2020 for Phuket's new tram network |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/1505258/bidding-date-set-for-2020-for-phukets-new-tram-network |access-date=18 July 2018 |work=Bangkok Post |date=18 July 2018}}</ref>

; Ferry
Ferry services serve neighboring islands, such as [[Phi Phi Islands|Phi Phi]] and [[Ko Lanta District|Koh Lanta]]. They operate daily from Rassada Pier and Tonsai Pier.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.directferries.com/koh_lanta_phuket_ferry.htm|title=Koh Lanta to Phuket ferry tickets, compare times and prices|website=www.directferries.com|language=en-us|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.phuketharbour.com/|title=Phuket to Phi Phi Ferry {{!}} Phuket to Phi Phi Speedboat|work=phuketharbour.com|access-date=2018-11-07|archive-date=2020-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807145635/http://www.phuketharbour.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Health ==
Phuket has six hospitals. The main hospital, operated by the [[Ministry of Public Health (Thailand)|Ministry of Public Health]], is [[Vachira Phuket Hospital]], with smaller hospitals at Thalang and Patong. There are also three private hospitals: [[Phuket International Hospital]], [[Bangkok Hospital Phuket]], and [[Mission Hospital Phuket]].

==Human achievement index 2022==
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:400px;"
|-
| style="text-align:center; width:100px; background:black; color:white;"| Health
| style="text-align:center; width:100px; background:black; color:white;"| Education
| style="text-align:center; width:100px; background:black; color:white;"| Employment
| style="text-align:center; width:100px; background:black; color:white;"| Income
|-
| [[File:Health icon Thai.png|95px]]
| [[File:Round Landmark School Icon - Transparent.svg|100px]]
| [[File:Employment icon.png|100px]]
| [[File:Numismatics and Notaphily icon.png|100px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 7
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 10
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 63
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 36
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| Housing
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| Family
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| Transport
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| Participation
|-
| style="height:100px;"| [[File:586-house-with-garden.svg|100px]]
| [[File:Parents, enfants, famille.png|center|85px]]
| [[File:Groundtransport inv.svg|100px]]
| [[File:Icon Sociopolítica y relaciones internacionales (wikiproyect, es.wp).png|90px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 69
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 52
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 5
| style="text-align:center; background:black; color:white;"| 74
|-
| colspan="4"; style="background:black; color:white;"| Province Phuket, with an HAI 2022 value of 0.6399, is "average" and occupies 41 place in rankings.
|}

Since 2003, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at the sub-national level using the [[Human Achievement Index]] (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. The National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.<ref name="HAI 2565" />

{| class="wikitable" ---valign=top
||Rank||Classification
|-
||1—13||"high"
|-
||14—29||"somewhat high"
|-
||30—45||"average"
|-
||46—61||"somewhat low"
|-
||62—77||"low"
|}
{|role= "presentation" class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|'''Map with provinces and HAI 2022 rankings'''
|-
|[[File:HAI 2022 rankings.svg|950px]]
|}
{{clear}}

== Sports ==
[[Phuket F.C.]], also known as The Southern Sea Kirins, was established in 2009 and subsequently joined the Regional League South Division. The team designated [[Surakul Stadium]] as their home ground for matches. Sirirak Konthong took the helm as the inaugural coach of the team. In their formative year, Phuket F.C. demonstrated significant progress in the league.

The 2010 season marked a notable achievement for Phuket F.C., as the team clinched the title in the Southern Regional Division 2. Despite a loss to Buriram FC in the final, Phuket F.C. secured second place in the Division 2 Champions League. This performance facilitated their promotion to the [[2011 Thai Division 1 League|Thai Division 1 League]] for the 2011 season.

In 2017, Phuket F.C. was officially dissolved. This decision was influenced by financial difficulties, particularly issues surrounding the termination of contracts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khaosod.co.th/sports/news_649804|title=ภูเก็ตยุบสโมสรหลังฟีฟ่าสั่งจ่ายค่าปรับ83ล้านให้อดีตแข้งต่างชาติ - ข่าวสด|date=28 November 2017 }}</ref>

The following year, in 2018, Phuket F.C. underwent significant changes. The club merged with [[Banbueng F.C.]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siamsport.co.th/football-thailand/thaileague-1/24094/|title=รอเปิดตัว! บอร์ดเมืองตรังยัน "ภูเก็ต เฟื่องคร" ย้ายซบ ชลบุรี|date=June 18, 2023|website=www.siamsport.co.th}}</ref> a move that resulted in a substantial reorganization. By 2019, this merged entity adopted the name Phuket City.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mgronline.com/south/detail/9620000015912|title=เปิดตัวยิ่งใหญ่! สโมสร "ภูเก็ต ซิตี้" มั่นใจเลื่อนชั้นภายในปีนี้ ดันภูเก็ตเป็นเมืองแห่งกีฬา|date=14 February 2019}}</ref> However, this renaming was short-lived. Subsequent changes in the club's management, particularly a takeover by the board members of Banbueng F.C., led to a reversion to the name Banbueng F.C.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}} Along with this change in nomenclature, the club relocated its home ground to the [[Institute of Physical Education Chonburi Campus Stadium|IPE Chonburi Stadium]] in Chonburi.

In a separate development, Patong City, another football club, marked a notable milestone in 2020. The club participated in the [[2020–21 Thai League 3 Southern Region]], marking its first appearance in this league. This participation signified a new chapter in the club's history and its evolving presence in regional football.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mgronline.com/south/detail/9630000015064|title=ทีมฟุตบอลน้องใหม่ของคนภูเก็ต "ป่าตอง ซิตี้" ก้าวสู่ลีกอาชีพครั้งแรก|date=14 February 2020}}</ref>

== Attractions ==
[[File:Wat Chalong - Phuket.jpg|thumb|right|[[Wat Chalong]]]]
* The [[Phuket Big Buddha]] is a prominent statue of Gautama Buddha in the Maravichai posture, situated in Phuket. This statue stands at a height of {{cvt|45|m|ft}} and spans {{cvt|25.45|m|ft}} in width. Constructed primarily from concrete and clad in Burmese white marble, it overlooks Ao Chalong Bay. The statue serves as the principal Buddha image for Wat Kitthi Sankaram (Wat Kata) temple. In 2008, Somdet Phra Yanasangwon, the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, designated the Phuket Big Buddha as the 'Buddhist Treasure of Phuket.'
* The Two Heroines Monument (อนุสาวรีย์วีรสตรี), located in Thalang District, is a memorial dedicated to [[Thao Thep Kasattri and Thao Sri Sunthon|Thao Thep Kasattri (Kunying Jan) and Thao Sri Sunthon (Mook)]]. These figures are historically significant for their role in mobilizing residents to repel Burmese forces during an invasion in 1785.<ref>{{cite web|title=Two Heroines Monument|url=http://www.tourismthailand.org/See-and-Do/Sights-and-Attractions-Detail/Two-Heroines-Monument--669|website=Amazing Thailand|publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand|access-date=2015-01-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150103182400/http://www.tourismthailand.org/See-and-Do/Sights-and-Attractions-Detail/Two-Heroines-Monument--669|archive-date=2015-01-03}}</ref>
* The Thalang National Museum (พิพิธภัณฑสถานแห่งชาติ ถลาง), established in 1985 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Thalang War, is an institution that showcases the cultural and historical heritage of Phuket and its surrounding regions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Phuket Museums|url=http://www.tourismthailand.org/See-and-Do/Sights-and-Attractions-Detail/Thalang-National-Museum--6017|website=Amazing Thailand|publisher=Tourist Authority of Thailand|access-date=2015-01-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228080352/http://www.tourismthailand.org/See-and-Do/Sights-and-Attractions-Detail/Thalang-National-Museum--6017|archive-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>
* [[Karon Beach|Hat Karon]] (หาดกะรน), known as the second largest tourist beach in Phuket,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hat Karon |url=https://www.tourismthailand.org/Attraction/hat-karon |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=www.tourismthailand.org |language=en}}</ref> is situated approximately {{cvt|20|km|mi}} from the town center.
[[File:Karon Beach, Phuket.jpg|thumb|upright|Karon Beach]]
* On On Hotel, located in downtown Phuket Town, gained international recognition after its appearance in the 2000 film 'The Beach', starring Leonardo DiCaprio.{{citation needed|reason=Need reliable source to support the claim|date=December 2023}}
* [[Wat Chalong]] (วัดฉลอง), officially known as Wat Chaiyathararam (วัดไชยธาราราม), is a significant historical temple in Phuket. It features a statue of Luang Pho Cham, a revered figure known for his role in assisting the local populace during the Angyee rebellion in 1876, under the reign of King Rama V.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-29 |title=Phuket Property: Prices, Hot Spots & Trends |url=https://hulaproperty.com/blog/phuket-property-prices-hot-spots-trends |website=Hula Property |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Old Phuket Town]], encompassing areas around Thalang, Dibuk, Yaowarat, Phang Nga, and Krabi Roads, is distinguished by its Sino-Portuguese architectural style.
* Aquaria Phuket opened on August 24, 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=BIGGEST AQUARIUM OPENS |date=25 August 2019 |publisher=Bangkok Post |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com}}</ref>
* Freedom Beach, characterized by its fine white sand and clear blue waters, is a popular destination near Phuket. Located close to Patong Beach, it is accessible by boat or through a hiking trail.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}
* A day trip to the Phi Phi Islands from Phuket typically involves a 50-minute journey by speedboat. These islands are renowned for their scenic beauty and are a favored destination for tourists seeking to experience the natural allure of the region.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

== Local culture ==
* The '''Thao Thep Krasattri and Thao Si Sunthon Fair''', observed annually on March 13, commemorates the heroines Thao Thep Krasattri and Thao Si Sunthon. These figures are celebrated for their leadership in mobilizing the people of Thalang to defend against Burmese invaders. This event holds significant historical importance in Phuket.
* '''[[Nine Emperor Gods Festival]]''', known in [[Hokkien]] as 'Kiú-Hông Sēng-Huē' or 'Kiú-Hông Iâ', and locally among the Chinese community in Phuket as the Vegetarian Festival ('Tsia̍h-tshài-tseh' in Hokkien or 'เทศกาลกินเจ' (กินผัก-เจี๊ยะฉ่าย) in Thai), occurs on the first day of the ninth Chinese lunar month. This period usually falls between late September and early October. During this festival, Phuket islanders of Chinese ancestry adhere to a nine-day vegetarian diet, a practice believed to bring purification and avert troubles in the coming year. The festival is known for its ascetic rituals, including fire-walking and ladder-climbing on sharp blades.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vegetarian Festival, Phuket|url=http://www.tourismthailand.org/Vegetarian-Festival|website=Amazing Thailand|publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT)|access-date=2015-01-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502223448/https://www.tourismthailand.org/Vegetarian-Festival|archive-date=2018-05-02}}</ref>
* The '''[[Ghost Festival]]''', or 'Phóo-tōo-tseh' in Hokkien ('Û-lân-phûn Sēng-Huē' in full), is celebrated on the middle day of the seventh Chinese lunar month. Central to this festival is the tradition of ancestor worship, which involves preparing food offerings, burning incense, and burning joss paper, symbolizing material items like clothes and gold for the spirits. The festival typically includes serving elaborate vegetarian meals with seats reserved for deceased family members. Activities may also encompass the release of miniature paper boats and lanterns on water, symbolizing guidance for lost souls.
* '''Phuket King's Cup Regatta''' (งานแข่งเรือใบชิงถ้วยพระราชทาน), held each December, is a prominent yachting event hosted by the Kata Beach Resort. It attracts participants, predominantly yachtsmen from neighboring countries, competing for various trophies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Phuket King's Cup Regatta|url=http://www.kingscup.com/|website=Phuket King's Cup Regatta|access-date=2015-01-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108035434/http://www.kingscup.com/|archive-date=2015-01-08}}</ref>
* The '''Laguna Phuket Triathlon''' (ลากูน่าภูเก็ตไตรกีฬา) is an annual event held each December in Phuket. This triathlon, comprising a {{cvt|1800|m|ft}} swim, a {{cvt|55|km|mi}} bike race, and a {{cvt|12|km|mi}} run, along with a {{cvt|6|km|mi}} fun run, attracts a diverse array of athletes from around the globe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Laguna Phuket Triathlon|url=http://www.challengelagunaphuket.com/tri-fest-races/laguna-phuket-triathlon/|website=Challenge; Laguna-Phuket Tri-Fest|access-date=2015-01-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111153428/http://www.challengelagunaphuket.com/tri-fest-races/laguna-phuket-triathlon/|archive-date=2015-01-11}}</ref>
* The '''Phuket Travel Fair''' (เทศกาลเปิดฤดูการท่องเที่ยวจังหวัดภูเก็ต), also known as the Patong Carnival, commences on November 1 each year. Predominantly celebrated in Patong, this event is characterized by colorful parades, sports events, and beauty competitions, attracting significant participation from both foreign tourists and Thai nationals. The opening of the Patong Carnival is a particularly popular event, drawing crowds exceeding 30,000 visitors.<ref name=Thaiger>{{cite web|title=Phuket Carnival 2018 kicks off in a blaze of colour|url=https://thethaiger.com/news/phuket/phuket-carnival-2018-kicks-off-in-a-blaze-of-colour|publisher=The Thaiger|date=2018-11-01|access-date=2018-11-01|location=Phuket}}</ref>
* The '''Chao Le (Sea Gypsy) Boat Floating Festival''' (งานประเพณีลอยเรือชาวเล) is observed annually during the middle of the sixth and eleventh lunar months. This festival involves communities from the sea gypsy villages of Rawai and Sapam, Ko Si-re, and Laem La, located near Phuket's northern tip. Key activities include nighttime ceremonies where small boats are set adrift, a tradition akin to the Thai festival of Loi Krathong, aimed at dispelling evil and bringing good fortune.
* '''Phuket Bike Week''' is the largest motorbike event in Asia. It annually draws motorcyclists and spectators from various countries, including France. The event features a range of activities such as motorcycle exhibitions, bike parades themed 'Ride for Peace', custom bike contests, and live entertainment. Additionally, it includes competitions like Mr. Phuket Bike Week and showcases bike accessories and apparel from both local and international vendors.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Phuket Bike Week: 11-19 April 2015|url = http://www.thaifestivalblogs.com/phuket-bike-week/|access-date = 2015-09-28|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929125800/http://www.thaifestivalblogs.com/phuket-bike-week/|archive-date = 29 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = 22nd anniversary PHUKET BIKE WEEK 2016 on April 8-16, 2016 - at Patong Beach and Phuket Town, Phuket, Thailand|url = http://www.phuketbikeweek.com/home.php|website = www.phuketbikeweek.com|access-date = 2015-09-28|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929014315/http://www.phuketbikeweek.com/home.php|archive-date = 2015-09-29}}</ref>

==Twin towns and sister cities==
Phuket province has several [[sister cities]]. They are:
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
: {{Flagicon|FRA}} [[Nice]], France (1989)
: {{Flagicon|USA}} [[Las Vegas]], United States (1997)
: {{Flagicon|CHN}} [[Yantai]], China (1997)
: {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Port Blair]], India (2005)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urbanindia.nic.in/programme/lsg/List_T_Cities.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Urban Development, India |title=List of twinned cities |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717083810/http://www.urbanindia.nic.in/programme/lsg/List_T_Cities.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-17 }}</ref>
: {{Flagicon|CHN}} [[Hainan]], China (2005)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hainan.gov.cn/code/V3/en/Sister%20Cities.html|publisher=Heinan Government|title=Sister Cities|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716181135/http://www.hainan.gov.cn/code/V3/en/Sister%20Cities.html|archive-date=2010-07-16}}</ref>
: {{Flagicon|RUS}} [[Nakhodka]], Russia (2006)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nakhodka-city.ru/news.aspx?id=8844&lang=eng|title=Nakhodka celebrates the day of twin-cities|publisher=Nakhodka City Administration|date=2009-04-24|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721155227/http://www.nakhodka-city.ru/news.aspx?id=8844&lang=eng|archive-date=2011-07-21|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref>
: {{Flagicon|CHN}} [[Suining]], China (2016)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thephuketnews.com/phuket-becomes-sister-city-with-suining-china-58061.php#kpWkW48Y6Poe7Wlt.97|title=Phuket becomes sister city with Suining, China|publisher=Nakhodka City Administration|date=2016-06-30|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000638/http://www.thephuketnews.com/phuket-becomes-sister-city-with-suining-china-58061.php#kpWkW48Y6Poe7Wlt.97|archive-date=2017-02-02}}</ref>
: {{Flagicon|CHN}} [[Macau]], China (2018)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.mo/zh-hant/news/239992/ | title=行政長官與泰國外長會面澳門普吉府締結友好城市 | date=9 May 2018 }}</ref>
{{Div col end}}

==In popular culture==
Phuket was a primary filming location for the 2005 film ''[[Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith]]'', serving as the basis for most of the exterior shots of the planet Kashyyyk, especially during the sequences at the Kachirho Beach location.

==Gallery==
<gallery widths=200 heights=140>
File:Thao Thep Kasattri and Thao Sri Sunthon.jpg|Monument to Thao Thep Kasattri and Thao Sri Sunthon in Phuket
File:KataNoiBeach.jpg|[[Hat Kata Noi|Kata Noi Beach]]
File:"Big Budda" Phuket 2014 february - panoramio (4).jpg|[[Phuket Big Buddha|Big Buddha]] monument overlooking Phuket
File:Palm tree at dawn, Patong beach.jpg|[[Patong]] Beach
File:Koh hae, Thailand.jpg|Ko Hae Island
File:Promthep Cape 04.jpg|Phromthep Cape and Kaeo Yai Island
File:Phuket 2014, december - panoramio (4).jpg|Mai Khao, [[Thalang District]]
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Phuket}}
* Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David (July 2016): [http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120510162540&aiid=120524153854 "Phuket's Historic Peranakan Community"]

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Phuket province
|North = [[Phang Nga province]]
|Northeast =
|East = ''[[Andaman Sea]]''
|Southeast =
|South = ''[[Andaman Sea]]''
|Southwest =
|West = ''[[Andaman Sea]]''
|Northwest =
}}
{{Provinces of Thailand|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Phuket province| ]]
[[Category:Andaman Sea]]
[[Category:Islands of the Strait of Malacca]]
[[Category:Islands of Thailand]]
[[Category:Provinces of Thailand]]
[[Category:Southern Thailand]]
[[Category:Strait of Malacca]]